Killer Ape or Peacemaker Flashcards
Introduction:
outline the debate among scientist
There is a debate among scientist whether humans are primarily aggressive and competitive or inherently social and peaceful. One group of people argue that the biological approach seems to suggest that aggression is part of our genetic build-up and part of what we have evolved to be like is pessimistic. Another group argue that, living in a social group leads inevitably to conflict and you can’t get away from that but given the right circumstances humans can show amazing abilities to avoid and to resolve conflicts.
Introduction:
the remaining questions
The questions remaining are; does culture teach people to work together and suppress apish aggression? Or are humans at heart peace loving and it is just the unnatural pressures of modern industrial society that triggers anti-social behaviour? One way to tackle the remaining questions is to look at human closest relatives. Perhaps we can model other primates’ sociality and get an insight into the cooperativeness and aggression that we find in humans by looking at these other species.
which species, common chimpanzee or bonobo, is the best model for our human ancestors?
common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are male dominated and often aggressive and power-driven. If one took them as a model of our species it would suggest an aggressive male dominated ancestral pattern. However, pygmy chimpanzees or bonobos live in a relatively peaceful, female dominated society that lives by the mantra, “make love, not war”. Which of these two species is the better model for our ancestral condition? The answer is neither, they are separate species and they have evolved their own separate patterns that could be as different from each other as from our ancestors.
nature of Ngogo chimpanzees?
Ngogo chimpanzees live in an isolated area in which humans have, as yet, exerted little external pressure. Nevertheless, the chimpanzees show high levels of intra- and inter-group aggressiveness, which is often lethal. Mitani et al. (2010) reported that over the course of 10 years the Ngogo chimpanzees completely displaced a rival group adjacent to the North-Eastern corner of their territory, enlarging their range by 22%. A total of 18 fatal attacks were witnessed by researchers. Land, rather than mates, seemed to be the main motivation. The rates of lethal aggression exceeded those reported for either agricultural or hunter-gatherer societies.
nature of Bonobos?
Bonobos are as closely genetically related to us as common chimpanzees. Yet, they show low levels of aggression. Their society is female dominated; males are “mummies’ boys”. They live by the slogan, “make love, not war”. Sex is used in all kinds of situations to diffuse tension. Inter-group group encounters are often peaceful ending in sex between members of the two communities.
What is this kind of evolutionary modelling
called? What is the alternative approach?
• Using one species or group as a model for an
ancestral state is called referential modelling.
• The alternative approach is strategic
modelling in which several groups or species
are compared to identify common underlying
principles.
Reconciliation, Consolation and Arbitration:
De Waal initial observations
Common chimpanzees may possess a darker side, but that does not mean they are “killer apes”. They also exhibit prosocial behaviour (i.e., behaviour that promotes positive social interaction). De Waal while studying the large group of captive chimpanzees in Holland, noticed that they would often approach each other in a friendly manner after a fight. He wondered if they were trying to reconcile their differences. De Waal was able to demonstrate statistically that chimpanzees were more likely to approach each other in a friendly manner after a fight than when compared to other control periods of time which did not follow a fight.
Reconciliation, Consolation and Arbitration:
De Waal & Roosemalen (1978) what did they find? name and function of such behaviour ?
De Waal & Roosemalen (1978) reported a pattern in which a third party would sometimes hug, kiss or groom the winner or loser in a previous fight. They called this behaviour consolation and suggested it functions to ease group tension.
Reconciliation, Consolation and Arbitration:
criticism of De Waal & Roosemalen (1978) interpretation?
However, this interpretation has been challenged by a different study which found no evidence that consolation eased stress, regardless of the identity of the consoler. Thus, researchers concluded that consolation is a postconflict interaction in its own right, the function of which is not likely to be connected to stress relief of the consoled individual (Koski & Sterck, 2007).
Reconciliation, Consolation and Arbitration:
Frazer et al (2008)
Nevertheless, a more recent study by Fraser et al (2008) shows that consolation in chimpanzees does reduces behavioural measures of stress in receiver of aggression, supporting De Waal and colleagues’ interpretation. Signs of reconciliation and consolation behaviour in primates do not suggest that humans have evolved to be primarily aggressive and competitive. Additionally, in the past Anthropologist believed that motivation behind consolation in chimps is purely selfish - with the consoling chimp wanting to prevent further violence. However, this most recent study challenged this assumption because if that was the case then there shouldn’t be a calming effect from the consolation, rather, just a reduction of aggression. If an act of consolation is indeed carried out for the benefit of the others rather than the third party, this may suggest that chimps possess empathy.
Empathy:
Introduction and definition
Cognitive empathy is defined not only by the sharing of emotions but also by adaptation of another’s viewpoint followed by an appropriate response. Most of such definitions sound cognitively demanding thus, till recently animal empathy was rarely considered.
Empathy:
Synchronization
It has been observed that babies contagiously cry when they hear other babies crying (sharing of emotions). Infants try to offer help by hugging, patting and offering toys to the distressed individual (adaptation of view point and appropriate response). Synchronization is one part of the empathy mechanism and in humans it is studied through yawn contagion. The contagion of yawning is related to empathy as it activates the same areas in the brain, for instance, an Autistic child that has problems with empathy may not get yawn contagion.
Empathy:
Synchronisation study and conclusion
Synchronisation was studied in Chimpanzees, by De Waal, by presenting them with an animated chimp head that yawns. It was found that yawn contagion is something we share with other primates which is related to the body channel of synchronisation that underlies empathy. However, it is extremely difficult to distinguish in other species their own comfort-seeking behaviour for comfort-offering. Thus, whether or not non-human animals can empathise is still controversial and divisive among scientists.
Cooperation:
introduction to co-op by comparison with hunter-gatherers
+ definition
Human hunter-gatherers exhibit strong tendencies for cooperation and sharing. Chimpanzees (and to a lesser extent other primate species) exhibit similar patterns of behaviour, but perhaps not to the same degree or at the same level of sophistication. Just like in human hunter-gatherers, cooperation and sharing in chimpanzees is most marked in the context of hunting and meat distribution. Cooperation refers to two or more individuals working together toward the same goal, thereby gaining an overall net benefit over and above what they would have achieved if they had worked alone. There have been a number of experiments on cooperation in non-human primates.
Cooperation: Evidence
Chalmeau (1994)
Chimps
Chalmeau (1994) A group of six chimpanzees was presented with a pair of levers spaced far apart that had to be pulled simultaneously for the apparatus to release food. The adult male and a juvenile female succeeded. The female pulled randomly, but the male carefully watched her and synchronised his pulling with her. However, he refused to share the food reward so that the “cooperation” collapsed.
