Khan Academy 300 Page Document Terms and Concepts Flashcards

Question 1

Q

What are the things that allow us to perceptually organize by taking into account these things (what are these things?): depth, form, motion, and constancy?

Answer

A

Visual cues are the things that allow us to perceptually organize by taking into account these cues: depth, form, motion, and constancy?

Question 2

Q

Humans have two eyes which allow them to receive visual cues from their environment by . These give them a sense of . This also gives them —Eyes are ~2.5 inches apart which allows humans to get slightly different views of objects of world around. Gives humans an idea on . (PIC is of third set of blank).

Answer

A

Humans have two eyes which allow them to receive visual cues from their environment by binocular cues.** These give them a sense of **depth**. This also gives them **retinal disparity**. Eyes are ~2.5 inches apart which allows humans to get slightly different views of objects of the world around. Gives humans an idea on **depth. [PIC is of third set of blank (retinal disparity to show how helps with depth)].

Question 3

Q

_________ is another way of saying that if we are looking at something far away, the muscles in our eyes are fairly relaxed. This gives humans an idea of depth based on how much eyeballs are turned. The blank gives humans a sense of depth.

Things far away - muscles of eyes relaxed.
Things close to us - muscles of eyes contract

Answer

A

Convergence

Question 4

Q

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called __________ ____.

__________ ____ give humans a sense of form of an object
- ______ ___ - Can infer with one eye. The closer an object is, the more it is perceived as being bigger. ______ ___ gives us an idea of form.

Answer

A

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

m__onocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).
- Relative size - Can infer with one eye. The closer an object is, the more it is perceived as being bigger. Relative size gives us an idea of form.

Question 5

Q

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

Monocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

___________ (_________)- Perception that one object is in front of another and that that object is therefore closer

Answer

A

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

Monocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

Interposition** **(overlap)- Perception that one object is in front of another and that that the object is therefore closer.

Question 6

Q

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

Monocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

___________ ______-things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower.

Answer

A

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

Monocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

Relative height-things higher are perceived to be farther away than those that are lower.

Question 7

Q

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called __________ ______.

__________ ____ give humans a sense of ____ of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

_________ ________ using light and shadows to perceive form depth/contours – crater/mountain.

Answer

A

Humans also have visual cues they receive which they do not need two eyes for. These are called monocular cues.

Monocular cues give humans a sense of form of an object (The underlined answer listed below is a monocular cue).

Shading** and **contour using light and shadows to perceive form depth/contours – crater/mountain.

Question 8

Q

___________ _____ can also give a sense of _____. (What is listed below is a ___________ _____ and gives a sense of _____?)

___________ _________–”relative motion” Things farther away move slower, and things closer appear to be moving faster. Based on how the images move, you can get an idea of how far away things are

Answer

A

Monocular cues can also give a sense of motion. (What is listed below is a monocular cue and gives a sense of motion?)

Motion parallax–”relative motion” Things farther away move slower, and things closer appear to be moving faster. Based on how the images move, you can get an idea of how far away things are.

Question 9

Q

There is a monocular cue of ___________.

____________– Our perception of the object doesn’t change even if the image cast on the retina is different. Different types of __________ include ____ ____________, _____ __________, and _____ _________.
- ____ __________: even though one object that appears larger because it is closer, we still percieve it to be the same size. It remains the same percieved size even though the image on our retina has changed size.
- _____ __________: even though the image changes the shape on our retina through angular ponts of view, we still percieve that object to be the same shape.
  - Ex. A door opening means the shape is changing, but we still believe the door is a rectangle.
- _____ ___________: despite changes in lighting which change the image falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color.

Answer

A

There is a monocular cue of constancy.

Constancy**– Our perception of the object doesn’t change even if the image cast on the retina is different. Different types of **constancy include size constancy, shape constancy, and color constancy.
- Size constancy: even though one object that appears larger because it is closer, we still perceive it to be the same size. It remains the same perceived size even though the image on our retina has changed size.
- Shape constancy: even though the image changes the shape on our retina through angular points of view, we still perceive that object to be the same shape.
  - Ex. A door opening means the shape is changing, but we still believe the door is a rectangle.
- Color constancy: despite changes in lighting which change the image falling on our retina, we understand (perceive) that the object is the same color.

Question 10

Q

________ ___________: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What is listed below falls under the category of the first set of blanks).

_________ _________– ______ ____ ______: higher noise = muscle contract (this dampens vibrations in the inner ear and, therefore, protects the ear drum). ______ ____ _______ contraction takes a few seconds to kick in! Therfore, the ________ does not work for immediate noises like a gun shot, but it works for being at a rock concert for the entire afternoon.

Answer

A

Sensory adaptation: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What is listed below falls under the category of sensory adaptation).

Hearing adaptation– inner ear muscle: higher noise = muscle contract (this dampens vibrations in the inner ear and, therefore, protects the eardrum). An inner ear muscle contraction takes a few seconds to kick in! Therefore, the adaptation does not work for immediate noises like a gunshot, but it works for being at a rock concert for the entire afternoon.

Question 11

Q

________ ___________: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category of the first set of blanks).

________–temperature receptors are desensitized over time
________–desensitized receptors in your nose to molecule sensory information over time

Answer

A

Sensory adaptation: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category Sensory adaptation).

Touch–temperature receptors are desensitized over time
Smell–desensitized receptors in your nose to molecule sensory information over time

Question 12

Q

________ ___________: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category of the first set of blanks).

_____________–is the sense of the position of the body in space i.e. “sense of balance/where you are in space.”
- Experiment: goggles that make everything upside down and the perception of the world, and eventually you would accommodate over time, and your brain would develop to flip the image back over.

Answer

A

Sensory adaptation: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category of sensory adaptation).

Proprioception–is the sense of the position of the body in space i.e. “sense of balance/where you are in space.”
- Experiment: goggles that make everything upside down and the perception of the world, and eventually you would accommodate over time, and your brain would develop to flip the image back over.

Question 13

Q

________ ___________: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category of the first set of blanks).

______–downregulation or upregulation to light intensity.
- ____ ___________: light adaptation. When it is bright out pupils constrict, causing less light to enter the eye. The rods and cones of the eyes become desensitized to light too.
- __ ___________: dark regulation. Pupils dilate, and rods are cones start synthesizing light-sensitive molecules

Answer

A

Sensory adaptation: Our senses are adaptable and they can change their sensitivity to stimuli. (What are listed below falls under the category of sensory adaptation).

Sight–downregulation or upregulation to light intensity.
- Down regulation: light adaptation. When it is bright out pupils constrict, causing less light to enter the eye. The rods and cones of the eyes become desensitized to light too.
- Up-regulation: dark regulation. Pupils dilate, and rods are cones start synthesizing light-sensitive molecules

Question 14

Q

Explain Weber’s Law?

Answer

A

Weber’s Law states that a change in the stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus.

delta I (JND)/ I (initial intensity) = k (constant)
ex. 0.2/2 = 0.5/5 = 0.1. Therefore, the change must be 0.1 of initial intensity to be noticeable.
If we take Weber’s law and rearrange it, we can see that it predicts a linear relationship between incremental threshold and background intensity.
delta I = Ik
If you plot I against delta I, it’s constant.
- Side Note: A 2 lb weight compared to a 2.05 lb weight will feel the same, but a 2 lb weight compared to a 2.2 lb weight will feel different.

Question 15

Q

The threshold at which you’re able to notice a change in any sensation is the ____ _______ __________ (___).

Answer

A

The threshold at which you’re able to notice a change in any sensation is the just noticeable difference (JND).

Question 16

Q

What is the absolute threshold of sensation?

Answer

A

The absolute threshold of sensation is the minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. It is NOT the same as the just noticeable difference or difference threshold (JND = DT basically).

The absolute threshold of sensation varies from person to person and can vary often within ONE individual for a number of psychological states reasons.

Question 17

Q

Explain more about the absolute threshold of sensation? Can the threshold be influenced by a number of factors? Is the threshold fixed or not? What are the four Psychological states that the absolute threshold of sensation be influenced by? Explain these psychological states!

Answer

A

The absolute threshold of sensation can certainly be influenced by a number of factors. Therefore, the threshold is NOT a fixed and NOT an unchanging number. There are four psychological states that influence and change the absolute threshold of sensation:

Expectations–ex. Are you expecting a text? If you are, you likely have a lowered absolute threshold of sensation.
Experience (how familiar you are with it)–ex. Are you familiar with your phone’s specific text vibration or is it new, so you might not register the stimuli.
Motivation–are you interested in the response of the text
Alertness–are you awake or drowsy. Ex. you are more likely to notice a noise if you are well rested and wide awake.

Question 18

Q

__________ ________–stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

Answer

A

Subliminal stimuli–stimuli below the absolute threshold of sensation

Question 19

Q

______________ refers to the process that conveys information regarding the body surface and its interaction with the environment. It can be subdivided into:

_______________- also called descriminative touch
_______________- temperature
_______________- painful:mainly chemical, but also mechanical and thermal
_______________-position

Answer

A

Somatosensation refers to the process that conveys information regarding the body surface and its interaction with the environment. It can be subdivided into:

Mechanoreception- also called discriminative touch
Thermoception- temperature
Nociception- painful: mainly chemical, but also mechanical and thermal
Proprioception-position

Question 20

Q

What are the four main types of somatosensation and what do each of the four types of somatosensation correspond to.?

Answer

A

The four main types of somatosensation are thermoception (temperature), mechanoception (pressure), nociception (pain), and proprioception (position).

Question 21

Q

What term is used to ask how quickly neurons fire for us to notice? (somatosensation topic)

Answer

A

Intensity

slow = low intensity
fast = high intensity

Question 22

Q

What are the three general ways neurons encode for the timing of encoding? Explain each of the three and the differences between each of these three types?

Answer

A

The three ways a neuron can encode for timing are either non adapting, fast adapting, or slow adapting.

Non-adapting- neuron consistently fires at a constant rate
Slow-adapting - neuron fires in beginning of stimulus and calms down after a while
Fast-adapting - neuron fires as soon as stimulus start…then stops firing. Starts firing again when the stimulus stops

Question 23

Q

_________, __________, _________, and ___________ are the types of information recieved about a specific stimuls for somatosensation?

Answer

A

Timing, intensity**, position, and location are the types of information recieved about a specific stimuls for somatosensation?

Question 24

Q

Location: Location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to the brain. Relies on ____________, an area of skin supplied by nerves from a single spinal root.

Answer

A

Location: Location-specific stimuli by nerves are sent to the brain. Relies on dermatomes, an area of skin supplied by nerves from a single spinal root

Question 25

Q

The ________ _________ is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Answer

A

The vestibular system is the sensory system that provides the leading contribution to the sense of balance and spatial orientation for the purpose of coordinating movement and balance.

Question 26

Q

The vestibular system comes from both _____ ____ and _____.

Answer

A

The vestibular system comes from both inner ears and limbs

Question 27

Q

The focus of the vestibular system is primarily on the inner ear, in particular, the __________ ______ (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other) of the inner ear.

Answer

A

The focus of the vestibular system is primarily on the inner ear, in particular, the semicircular canals (posterior, lateral, and anterior; each orthogonal to each other) of the inner ear.

Question 28

Q

What are the semicircular canals filled with? How does it allow us to detect the direction our head is moving in?

Answer

A

Our semicircular canals are filled with endolymph, and when we rotate, the fluid shifts in the semicircular canals–allows us to detect what direction our head is moving in, and because we can detect how quickly the endolymph is moving we can determine the strength of rotation.

Question 29

Q

What are the otolithic organs? What do the otolithic organs help us to detect? What goes on to help us to detect?

Answer

A

The otolithic organs are the utricle and saccule. The otolithic organs (utricle and saccule) help us to detect linear acceleration and head positioning. In these are CaCO₃ (Calcium carbonate) crystals attached to hair cells in a viscous gel. If we go from lying down to standing up, they move and pull on hair cells, which triggers an action potential. These would not work very well w/o gravity! Buoyancy can have effects as well, particularly without visual cues on which way is up/down.

The utricle and saccule (Otolithic organs) also contribute to dizziness and vertigo (when you or objects around you are moving when they are not)
- Endolymph doesn’t stop spinning the same time as we do, so it continues moving and indicates to the brain we’re still moving when we’ve stopped –results in feeling of dizziness

Question 30

Q

_____ ________ ______ is a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns (called stimulus in living organisms) and random patterns that distract from the information (called noise, consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator) At what point are we able to detect a signal

Origins in sonar–is signal a small fish vs. large whale.
Its role in psychology–Imagine being given a list. Then a second list. Now experimenter asks, which words on the second list were on the first. Person has to have uncertainty as they are not sure whether a certain word is exact or similar than the one in the first list. (Which words on the second list were present on the first list).
Real world example–traffic lights. It’s foggy day & you have to decide when tostart driving. How strong does a signal have to be for you to drive? Signal ispresent or absent (red).

Answer

A

Signal Detection Theory is a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns (called stimulus in living organisms) and random patterns that distract from the information (called noise, consisting of background stimuli and random activity of the detection machine and of the nervous system of the operator) At what point are we able to detect a

Origins in sonar–is signal a small fish vs. large whale.
Its role in psychology–Imagine being given a list. Then a second list. Now experimenter asks, which words on the second list were on the first. Person has to have uncertainty as they are not sure whether a certain word is exact or similar than the one in the first list. (Which words on the second list were present on the first list).
Real world example–traffic lights. It’s foggy day & you have to decide when tostart driving. How strong does a signal have to be for you to drive? Signal ispresent or absent (red).

Question 31

Q

What are the options in signal detection theory? What does each option mean? Can you draw the chart containing the options in signal detection theory?

Answer

A

The options in signal detection theory are hit, miss, false alarm, and correct rejection.

Hit - the subject responded affirmative when the signal was present
False Alarm - the subject perceived a signal when there was none present
Correct Rejection - a correct negative answer for no signal
Miss - a negative response to a present signal

Question 32

Q

Question 33

Q

For any signal, you have a _____ _________ (background) and you alsogeta second graph of the _______ _________.

The ___________ __________ the middle signal and noise distribution is d’. If the signla graph is shifted to the right, you get a larger and more detectible signal.
The X-Axis represents intensity
The strategy C can be expressed via choice of threshold –what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say Yes vs. No. Ex. B, D, C, beta, just diff variables
If we were to use the strategy B, let’s say choose this threshold –>2. So anything > 2 will say Yes, anything <2, say No. So probability of hit is shaded yellow, and false alarm is purple.
D strategy: D = (d’-B), so let’s say d’ in this example is 1, so 2-1=-1. So if we use D strategy, anything above -1 = Yes; anything below -1 = No
C strategy is an ideal observer. Minimizes miss and false alarm. C = B –d’/2. So in our example, it’s 2-½ = 1.5. So anything above a 1.5 is YES, anything below 1.5 is NO
- When C = 0, participant is ideal observer. If <1 àliberal. If >1 àconservative
Beta strategy: set value of thresholdto the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution, i.e. lnbeta = d’ x C = 1 x 1.5 = 1.5. So e^1.5 = beta = 4.48

Answer

A

For any signal, you have a noise distriution (background) and you alsogeta second graph of the signal distribution.

The difference between the middle signal and noise distribution is d’. If the signal graph is shifted to the right, you get a larger and more detectible signal.
The X-Axis represents intensity
The strategy C can be expressed via choice of threshold –what threshold individual deems as necessary for them to say Yes vs. No. Ex. B, D, C, beta, just diff variables
If we were to use the strategy B, let’s say choose this threshold –>2. So anything > 2 will say Yes, anything <2, say No. So probability of hit is shaded yellow, and false alarm is purple.
D strategy: D = (d’-B), so let’s say d’ in this example is 1, so 2-1=-1. So if we use D strategy, anything above -1 = Yes; anything below -1 = No
C strategy is an ideal observer. Minimizes miss and false alarm. C = B –d’/2. So in our example, it’s 2-½ = 1.5. So anything above a 1.5 is YES, anything below 1.5 is NO
- When C = 0, participant is ideal observer. If <1 àliberal. If >1 àconservative
Beta strategy: set value of threshold to the ratio of height of signal distribution to height of noise distribution, i.e. lnbeta = d’ x C = 1 x 1.5 = 1.5. So e^1.5 = beta = 4.48

Question 34

Q

________ ____ __________: Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we percieve (our perception). AKA perception _______ cognition

No preconceived cognitive contructs of the stimulus (never seen it before)
Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness o what you’re looking at (object)
Inductive reasoning. Always correct.

Answer

A

Bottom Up Processing: Begins with stimulus. Stimulus influences what we percieve (our perception). AKA perception directs cognition

No preconceived cognitive contructs of the stimulus (never seen it before)
Data driven. And the stimulus directs cognitive awareness o what you’re looking at (object)
Inductive reasoning. Always correct.

Question 35

Q

___ ____ _________: uses background knowledge to influence perception. Ex. Where’s Waldo

Theory driven
Explain deductive reasoning!
ex. creating a cube when it is not there! Not always correct

Answer

A

Top-down Processing: uses background knowledge to influence perception. Ex. Where’s Waldo

Theory driven
Deductive reasoning, also deductive logic, logical deduction is the process of reasoningfrom one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion.
ex. creating a cube when it is not there! Not always correct

Question 36

Q

The principles of grouping (or _______ ________ or ________ ____ __ ________) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects, a principle known as Prägnanz. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules.

What are the five main _______ ________: _______ __________, _______, __________, ___________.

Answer

A

The principles of grouping (or Gestalt Principles or Gestalt Laws of grouping) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed by Gestalt psychologists to account for the observation that humans naturally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects, a principle known as Prägnanz. Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules.

What are the five main Gestalt Principles: similarity pragnanz, proximity, continuity, and closure.

Question 37

Q

This is a Gestalt Principle. _____________: items similar to one another are grouped by the brain. Ex: The brain automatically organizes these squares and circles into columns, and notin rows.

Answer

A

This is a Gestalt Principle. Similarity: items similar to one another are grouped by the brain. Ex: The brain automatically organizes these squares and circles into columns, and not in rows.

Question 38

Q

Which Gestalt Principle explains that reality is organized or reduced to its simplest form possible? Ex. Olympic rings, where the brain automatically organizes these into five circles, instead of more complex shapes.

Answer

A

Pragnanz

Question 39

Q

Which Gestalt Principle states that our minds automatically assume objects that are close are grouped together? We naturally group the closer things together rather than things that are farther apart. Ex: we group things that are close to one another together

Answer

A

Proximity

Question 40

Q

Which Gestalt Principle states that our mind percieves that lines are following the smoothest path? Ex: You group the line together!

Answer

A

Continuity

Question 41

Q

Which Gestalt Principle states that objects that are grouped together are seen as a whole? Your mind automatically assumes or fills in missing information. Ex. you fill in the triangle even though there is none.

Answer

A

Closure

Question 42

Q

Which Gestalt Principle states that our mind tends to percieve objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point?

Answer

A

Symmetry

Question 43

Q

Explain the Gestalt Principle of the Law of Common Fate.

Answer

A

The Law of Common Fate: For example, if there are an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we percieve the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units

Question 44

Q

Explain the Gestalt Principle of the Law of Past Experiences!

Answer

A

The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If two objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters “L” and “I” as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U

Question 45

Q

Explain the Gestalt Principle of contextual Effects!

Answer

A

Contextual Effects:the context in which stimuli are presented and the processes of perceptual organization contribute to how people perceive those stimuli (and also that the context can establish the way in which stimuli are organized).

Question 46

Q

What is the thin membrane that covers part of the front surface of the eye and the inner surface of the eyelids?

Answer

A

Conjunctiva

Question 47

Q

What part of the eye is the transparent thicksheet of firous tissue, anterior 1/6th; starts to bend light, first part f eye light hits?

Answer

A

Cornea

Question 48

Q

Which part of the human eye is the space filled with ______ ___________, which provides pressure to maintain the shape of the eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of the cornea/iris?

Answer

A

Which part of the human eye is the space filled with Aqueous Homour, which provides pressure to maintain the shape of the eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of the cornea/iris?

Answer: Anterior Chamber

Question 49

Q

Which part of the eye is in the opening of the middle iris? The size of this can get bigger/ smaller based on the iris relaxing/contracting respectively. The process of expanding and contracting modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball.

Answer

A

Pupil

Question 50

Q

What part of the eye gives the eye a color other than white? It is a muscle that constricts/relaxes to change the size of the pupil?

Question 51

Q

Which part of the eye bends light to make it go to the back of the eyeball? This part of the eye focuses light specifically on the fovea of the retina. This part of the eye adjusts how much it bends the light by chagning its shape, using the suspensory ligaments.

Question 52

Q

__________ _________: attached to a _________ _________. These two things together form the cillary body. The cillary epithelieum secretes aqueus humor.

Answer

A

Suspensory Ligaments: attached to a cillary muscle. These two things together form the cillary body. The cillary epithelieum secretes aqueus humor.

Question 53

Q

What is the area behind the iris to the back of the lens? This area is also filled with aqueous humor.

Answer

A

Posterior Chamber

Question 54

Q

What and where in the area of the eye ________ humour found, a jelly like substance to provide pressure to the eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of the eyeball?

Answer

A

Vitreous Chamber

What and where in the area of the eye vitreous humour found, a jelly like substance to provide pressure to the eyeball and gives nutrients to inside of the eyeball?

Question 55

Q

What is the layer of nerve cells lining the back wall inside the eye? This layer senses light and sends signals to the brain so you can see. More specifically, it is the backarea filled with photreceptors, where the ray of light is converted from a physcal waveform to an electrochemical impulse that the brain can interpret.

Answer

A

Retina

Question 56

Q

What is the special part of the retina rich in cones, but thee are also rods in that area?

Answer

A

Macula

Question 57

Q

What part of the eye is a special part of the macula that is completely covered in cones (meaning no rods)?

*Rest of retina is covered in primarily rods.

Answer

A

Fovea

Question 58

Q

Which photoreceptor in the eye detects color and discerns the high level of detail in what you are observing?

Answer

A

Cones

These are cone-shaped

Question 59

Q

What photoreceptor in the eye detects light and has low spatial acuity? These are responsible for vision at low light levels.

Question 60

Q

What is the part of your eye between the sclera and the retina? The _________ is part of the uvea, and it contains blood vessels and connective tissues. It is pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that help to nourish the retinca. It is black to make sure all the light is absorbed. Some animals have a different colored one which gives them better night vision.

Answer

A

Choroid

Question 61

Q

What is the part of the eye composing the ______ of the eye? It is the thick firous tissue that covers the posterior 5/6th of the eyeball (cornea covers the anterior 1/6th). It is an attachment point for muslces. It is an extra layerof protectin and structure of the yeball. It is lined with the conjunctiva. It also usually absorbs by the timethe light gets to this.

Answer

A

Sclera

Question 62

Q

____________ is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron.

Answer

A

Transmission is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron.

Question 63

Q

What is the conscious sensory experience of neural processing?

Answer

A

Perception

Question 64

Q

___________ is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Answer

A

Processing is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception.

Answer 61

A

Transduction

Answer 62

A

Sensation requires a physical stimulus to be converted into a neural impulse.

Answer 63

A

In the case of the eye, light is being converted to a neural impulse by a photoreceptor.

Answer 64

A

Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light rangesfrom Violet (400 nm) to Red (700 nm). The highest to lowest wavelength is ROYGBIV. The Sun is the most common sources of light.

The electromagnetic spectrum contains everything fromgamma ras (low wavelength) to AM/FMwaves (long wavelength). Visible light is in the middle of the EM spectrum.

Answer 65

A

Light enters the pupil and goes to the retina, which contains rods and cones.

Answer 66

A

There are 120 million rods. Rods are good during night vision.

Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally your rod is turned on, but when light hits, it causes the rod to turn off.

When the rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic never and enters brain.

Answer 67

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There are 6-7 million cones in the human eye. Cones are good at detecting in high detail. Cones are what help us find Waldo’s bitch ass in a search book. There are three types of cones: red, green, and blue. Almost all the cones are centered in the fovea, which is the center of the macula.

Answer 68

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The Phototransduction Cascade is what happens when light hits a rod and/or cone.

When light hits rods, the rods turn off. This then causes the bipolar cells to turn on. The bipolar cell causes the retinal ganglion cells to then turn on. This goes to the optic nerve and then goes to the brain.
The phototransduction cascade is the process of the rod turning from ON to OFF.

Answer 69

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The Phototransduction Cascade makes the brain recognize that there is light entering the eyeball. The process of making the light leads to a neural impulse by turning off a rod. The neral impulse can turn on other cells and eventually be processed by the brain.

Answer 70

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The human retina is primarily made of rods and cones.

Answer 71

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Inside the rod are many optic disks stacked on top of one another
Many protiens are on the optic disk. One of those proteins is rhodopsin (on a cone the same protein is called photopsin), a multimeric protein with 7 dics, which contains a small molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal). When there is light, the light comes through the pupil and hits the retinal (11-cis rretinal), then it rods, some of the light hits rhodopsin (which contains retinal) and causes the retinal to change conformation from bent to straight conformation (11-trans retinal)
When retinal changes shape, rhodopsin changes shape (closely linked molecules). This begins the cascade.
Next, there’s a molecule called transducin made of three different parts – alpha, beta, gamma that is attached to the rhodopsin typically.
- When the rhodopsin changes shape, transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and the alpha subunit binds to another disk protein called Phospodiesterase (PDE)
- PDE takes cGMP and converts it to regular GMP. [So when light hits, lower concentration of cGMP and increases the concentraion of GMP].
- Lots of Na+ channels on the rods allow Na⁺ ions to come in,
  - cGMP bound to Na+ channel, keeps the channel open and hence “on”, as cGMP concentration decreases (due to the PDE which converts it into GMP), Na+ channel closes and cell turns “OFF”
  - When Na+ channels become unbound of cGMP, less Na+ enters the cell, then cell hyperpolarization and turn “OFF”
- Next, bipolar cells (two variants: ON CENTER** and **OFF CENTER).
  - When light hits the rod, the rod turns off, leading to on center bipolar cells to activate and off center bipolar cells to inactivate.
  - When on center bipolar cells turn on, this activates on center retinal ganglion cells, which send signals to the optic nerve to the brain.
  - When dark, Rod turned on, leading to on center bipolar cells to be inactive and off center bipolar cells to be active
  - When off center bipolar cells are turned on, this activates off center retinal ganglion cells, which sends signals to the optic nerve to the brain.

Answer 72

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Photopic Vision occurs at levels of high light levels.

Answer 73

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Mesopic Vision occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones.

Answer 74

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Scotopic Vision occurs at levels of very low light.

Answer 75

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A photoreceptor is a specialized nerve that can take light and conver and convert it to a neural impulse
Inside rods are optic discs, which are large membrane bound structures – thousands of them. In the membrane of each optic disc are proteins that fire action potentials to the brain
Cones are also specialized nerves with the same internal structure as the rod.
Rods contain rhodopsin (a protein on the membrane of optic discs, which are inside rods); whereas, cones have a similar protein called photopsin.
Inside rhodopsin is cis retinal that gets turned into trans retinal once light hits it.
If light hits a rhodopsin, it will trigger the phototransduction cascade. Same process for a cone

Answer 76

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Phototransduction Cascade

Retina is made off a bunch of dif cells –rods and cones.
As soon as light is presented to him, he takes light and converts it to neural impulse.Normally turned on, but when light hits it’s turned off.
PTC is set of steps that turn it off.
- oInside rod are a lot of disks stacked on top of one another.
- A lot of proteins in the disks. One is rhodopsin, a multimeric protein with 7 discs, which contains a small molecule called retinal(11-cis retinal). When light hits, it can hit the retinal, and causes it to change conformation from bent to straight.
- When retinal changes shape, rhodopsin changes shape.
- That begins this cascade of events –there’s a molecule in green called transducin made of 3 dif parts –alpha, beta, gamma Transducin breaks from rhodopsin, and alpha part comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase(PDE).
  - So bipolar cells turn on. This activates retinal ganglion cellwhich sends signal to optic nerve to brain.
  - As less Na+ enters the cell,rodshyperpolarize and turn off. Glutamate is no longer released, and no longer inhibits ON bipolar cells (it’s excitatory to OFF bipolar cells). 
  - PDE takes cGMP and converts itto regular GMP. Na+ channels allow Na+ ions to come in, but for this channel to open, need cGMP bound. AscGMP decreases, Na channels closes.

Answer 77

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There are more rods than cones (each eye has 120M rods vs. 6M cones or 20x more rods than cones.) It is more important to see light than detail initially!
Cones are concentrated in the fovea.
Rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones. Rods are better at detecting light – telling us whether light is present. Rods are black and white vision.
Cones detect color primarily but cones also detect some light. There are three types of cones: Red, Green, and Blue
60% of your cones can detect red, 30% candetect green, and 10% can detect blue.
Rods have slow recovery time vs. cones have fast recovery time. Takes a while to adjust to the dark because rods need to be reactivated. Cones adapt to change quickly (fire more frequently)

Answer 78

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You blind spot is where your optic nerve connects to the retina. It is your blind spot because there are no rods or cones in that part of the eye.

Answer 79

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Rods are mostly found in the periphery of the retina.
Cones are found primarily in the fovea, and a few cones are dispersed through the rest of the eye.
At the fovea (dimple in the retina) - there are no axons in the way of light, so you get higher resolution. At the periphery of the retina, light has to get through bundles of axons and some light energy is lost. Therefore, at the fovea, light hits cones directly because there are not axons in the way. At the periphery, less light is able to reach the rods due to axons being in the way of the light trying to reach the rods.

Answer 80

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Visual Field Processing is how our brain makes sense of what we are looking at. The right side of our body is controlled by the left side of the brain, and the left side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain.

Answer 81

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All right visual field goes goes to the left side of the brain; all left visual field goes to the right side of the brain.

Answer 82

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A ray of light that enters your left eye on the nasal side of your head will get interpretted by the right side of your brain.

Answer 83

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Optic nerves from each eye networks the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the optic chiasm and then break off and dig deeper into the brain

All light signals from the nasal passage cross the other side. Therefore, only the nasal nerves pass the optic chiasm.
On the other hand, all axons leading from the temporal side DO NOT CROSS the optic chiasm.
What it effectively does, is the right visual field goes to the left brain and the left visual field goes to the right side of the brain

Answer 84

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Feature Detection: when looking at an object, you need to break it down into its component features to make sense of what you are looking at. There are three things to consider when looking at any object: color, form, and motion.

Answer 85

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There are three parts to feature detection: color, form, and motion

Color:
- Uses the cones of the eye
- Trichromatic Theory of color vision, three types of cones
  - Red (60%), Green (30%), and Blue (10%)
  - Remember red objects reflect red, green objects reflect green, and blue objects reflect blue
- If objects reflects red and travels to a red detecting cone, it can then fire an action potential and eventuallty cause the brain to say “OH RED!!”.
  *

Answer 86

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There are three parts to feature detection: Color, Form, and Motion.

Form: We need to figure our boundaries of the object and shape of the object.
- Parvocellular pathway: good at spatial resolution (boundaries and shape – high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can’t detect motion–only stationary)
- Cones are responsible for form!
- Acronym: Pink Pyramid (a type of form/shape) - Parvocellular pathway

Answer 87

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There are three parts to feature detection: Color, Form, and Motion.

Motion:
- Magnocellular pathway: has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. However, the magnocellular pathway has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible.
- Acronym: Motion = Magnocellular pathway

Answer 88

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There are three parts to feature detection: Color, Form, and Motion.

Parallel Processing: detect/focus all information(Color, Form, and Motion) at the same time.

Answer 89

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Audition is our sense of sound.

Answer 90

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For us to hear sound, we need two things (for audition to occur):

pressurized sound wave (a stimuli)
hair cell (a receptor, located in the cochlea)

What is a pressurized sound wave? Ex. In between your hands are a bunch of air molecules, and whenhands move towards each other, there is less space so the molecules compress and there is a higher pressure. The air molecules are becoming pressurized

Answer 91

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Air molecules are pressurized and try to escape, creating areas of high and low pressure – known as sound waves.

Sound waves can be far apart or close together
Wavelength: how close peaks are
- Smaller wavelength = greater frequency
- Higher wavelength (smaller frequency)= travel farther = penetrate deeper into the cochlea.
- Different noises have different sounds
- You can listen to different frequencies at same time –if you add diff frequency waves together, get weird frequency. Ear has to break this up. Able to do that because sound waves travel different lengths along cochlea.

Answer 92

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Sound (auditory waves) path:

First hit outer part of ear, known as the pinna.
Then the sound gets funneled from the pinna to the auditory canal (also known as the external auditory meatus).
Then from the auditory canal, they hit the tympanic membrane (also called the eardrum).
As pressurized wave hits the eardrum, it vibrates back and forth, causing 3 bones to vibrate in this order: i. Malleus (hammer) ii. incus (anvil)
iii. stapes (stirrup)

*[acronym: MIS]

*Three smallest bones in the body

*These bones combined are also referred to as the ossicles.

The stapes is attached to the oval window (aka elliptical window). The oval window then vibratesback and forth.
As it gets vibrated, it pushes fluid and causes it to go in/around the cochlea (a round structure lined with hair cells).
At the tip of the cochlea (inner most part of the circle), where can the fluid go? It can only go back, but goes back to the round window (circular window) and pushes it out.
The reason it doesn’t go back to the oval window, is because in the middle of the cochlea is a membrane –Organ of Corti (includes the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane).
As hair cells (cillia) move back and forth in the cochlea – electrical impulse is transported by auditory nerve to the brain.
The above process of fluid going around the cochlea keeps occurring till the energy of the sound wave dissipates and stops moving. Occurs more = more hair cells vibrate

Answer 93

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Place theory is a theory of hearing which states that our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane. By this theory, the pitchof a musical tone is determined by the places where the membrane vibrates, based on frequencies corresponding to the tonotopic organization of the primary auditory neurons. Place theory posits that one is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membrane.

Answer 94

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External/Outer ear: from pinna to tympanic membrane
Middle ear: from malleus to stapes (three ossicles)
Inner ear: Cochlea and semicircular canals

(Start of page 29 of the Khan Academy P/S Document)

Answer 95

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Stapes – moving back and forth at same frequency as stimulus. It pushes the elliptical window back and forth

There’s fluid inside the cochlea which gets pushed around the cochlea, and comes back around. The Organ of Corti splits the cochlea into two.

Answer 96

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For a cross section of the Organ of Corti

Upper and lower membrane, and little hair cells. As fluid flows from around the organ, it causes the hair cells to move back and forth.
The hair bundle is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocillium.
The tip of each kinocillium is connected by a tip link
The tip link is attached to the gate of the K+ Channel, so when the kinocillium gets pushed back and forth, they stretch and it allows K+ to flow inside the cell.
Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ get activated, and causes an action potential in a spiral ganglion cell which then activates the auditory nerve.

Answer 97

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Our brain relies on the cochlea to differentiate between two different sounds.
Base drums when hit give off a low frequency sound, and bees when flying give off a high frequency sound.
Humans can hear from 20 Hz to 20000 Hz frequencies.

Answer 98

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Brain also uses basilar tuning – there are varying hair cells in the cochlea. Hair cells at the base of the cochlea are activated by high frequency sounds, and the hair cells at the apex are activated by low frequency sounds.

As sounds of different frequencies reach the ear, they will stimulate different parts of the basilar membrane.
apex cochlea= 25 Hz (low frequency, HIGH wavelength)
Base cochlea= 1600 Hz (high frequency, LOW wavelength)
Only certain hair cells are activated and send AP to the brain – primary auditory cortex recieves all info from the cochlea.
The primary auditory cortex is also sensitive to various frequencies in different locations
Basilar tuning allows the brain to distinguish between different frequencies – tonotopical mapping.

Answer 99

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Cochlear implants are an implantable biomedical devices that are inserted into a person in an attempt to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensory narrow hearing loss – aka ‘nerve defness’

People who have a problem with conduction of sound waves from the cochlea to the brain get cochlear implants.
The device has a reciever that goes to a stimulator which reaches the cochlea. The receiver recieves information from a transmitter. The transmitter gets electrical information from the speech processor**. The **speech processor gets information from a microphone.
Entire process of cochlear implant: sound –> microphone –> speech processor –>transmitter (outside the skull) sends information to the reciever (inside the skull). Then it sends information to the stimulator, into the cochlea, and the cochlea converts the electrical impulse into a neural impulse that goes to the brain. The cochlear implant restores hearing to some degree.

Answer 100

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Sensory adaptation is change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus – down regulation of a sensory receptor in the body. sensory adaptation = down regulation (IMPORTANT TO KNOW!)

Example: as you push down with your hand, receptors experience constant pressure. However, after a few seconds, the receptors no longer fire.
Sensory adaptation/down regulation is important becuae if cells are overexcited, they can die. For eaxmple, if there is too much of a pain signal in a pain receptor from capsaicin, the recepter or cell can die.

Amplification is up regulation, and amplification is the opposite of sensory adaptation. Up regulation is the same as amplification.

An example of amplification or up regulation is when light hits a photoreceptor in the eye and causes the cell to fire. When the cell fires an action action potential, the AP can be connected to two cells, which also fires an action potential and so on. By the time it the action potential gets to the brain, the signal is amplified.

Answer 101

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Somatosensory Homunculus: A map of your body in your brain. Information all comes from the “sensory strip”. The Somatosensory Homunculus is a topological map of the entire body in the cortex. Different areas of the body have signals that go to different parts on this strip.
This part of the cortex/parietal lobe is called the sensory cortex – contains the homunculus.
Sensory information from all over the body ends up in the somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.
If there was a brain tumor, to figure out what part it’s in neurosurgeons can touch dif parts ofcortex and stimulatethem. If surgeon touches part of cortex patients can say they feel it. Do it to make sure they aren’t removing parts in sensation
This creates a topological map of the body in the cortex

Answer 102

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Your sense of balance and postion is called propioception.

Tiny little sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain. It’s sensitive to stretching.
Sensors contract with muscles–so we’re able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is

Kinaesthesia is talking about movement of the body. Proprioception was cognitive awareness ofbody in space. Kinaesthesiais morebehavioural.

Kinaesthesia does not include a sense of balance, while propioception includes a sense of balance.

Proprioception is concerned with your body in space; where as, kinesthesia is how your body will move or is moving.

Answer 103

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Nociception

Answer 104

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Thermoception

Answer 105

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Thermoception and nociception signals are sent slowly.

Answer 106

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In order for us to sense temperature, we rely on the TrypV1 receptor.

Interestingly, this receptor is also sensitive to pain.
There are thousands of TrypV1 receptors in membranes of cells. Heat causes a conformational change (change in physical structure) in the protein.
When the cell is poked, thousands of cells are broken up, and releases molecules that bind to TrypV1 receptor. This causes a change in conformation, which activates the cell and send the signal to the brain.

Answer 107

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There are 3 types of nerve fibers: fast, medium, and slow. {Acronym to remember: the nerve fibers are fast to slowest alphabetically A-B, A-D, C]

A-beta fibers - fast speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers are thick and covered in myeline (leading to less resistance and high conductance)
A-delta fibers - medium speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and less myelin.
C-Fibers - slow speed nerve fiber type. These nerve fibers have a small diameter and are unmyelinated. The unmyelination is what causes a lingering sense of pain.

Answer 108

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Pain also changes the conformation of receptors – capsaicin binds the TrypV1 receptor in your tongue, and triggers the same response.

Answer 109

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Smell is known as olfaction.

Answer 110

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Area in nostril called the olfactory epithelium. Separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain is the cribriform plate. Above the plate is an extension from the brain–olfactory bulb–a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through cribriform plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off.

At end of each connection are receptors, each sensitive to 1 type of molecule.
Molecule travels into nose, binds one of receptors on nerve endings.

Zoom in on olfactory bulb

Imagine there’s olfactory cell sending projection to olfactory bulb. There are thousandsof types of epithelial cells, each with dif receptor. Say this one is sensitive to benzene rings.
When it binds to receptor, triggers events that cause cell to fire. AP will end up in olfactory bulb. All cells sensitive to benzene will fire to one olfactory bulb–called a glomerulus.
They then synapse on another cell known as a mitral/tufted cell that projects to the brain.

The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor, G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell. Binds to ion channel, which opens and triggers an AP

Answer 111

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Dogs pee on a fire hydrant becuase pheromones are in a dog’s urine, and the dog wants to be sensed by other animals’ nose.

The cells that sense pheromones are specialized olfactory cells.
Pheromones cause some sort of response in the animal smelling them.
A pheromone is a chemical signal released by 1 member of the species and sensed by another species to trigger an innate response.
Pheromones are really inmportant in animals, particularly insects. Pheromones are linked to mating, fighting, and communication especially among insects.

Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals–the accessory olfactory epithelium. It sends projections to the accessory olfactory bulb.

Within the accessory olfactory epithelium, you have the vomeronasal system.
In vomeronasal system, there are basal cells and apical cells. They have receptors at tips.
Triangle will come in and activate receptor on basal cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, which eventually goes to the amygdala.
Amygdala is involved with emotion, aggression, mating etc.
Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans.
Humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. Therefore, pheromones do not have much of an impact on humans.
Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain.oIn humans have vomeronasal organ,but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones

Answer 112

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Gustation is our sense of taste.

Answer 113

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Our five main tastes are bitter, salty, sweet, sour, and unami (ability to taste glutamate).

Answer 114

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Taste buds are concentrated anteriorly on the tongue. However, taste buds can be fungiform (anterior on the tongue), foliate (side on the tongue), and circumvallate (back of the tongue). Each of these three taste bud types are structurally different.

In each taste bud, there are 5 receptor cells that can detect each individual taste. Each taste can be detected anywhere on the tongue. Each taste bud has cells specialized for each of the 5 tastes.
Most of the taste buds and, therefore, the taste receptors are on the anterior part of the tongue

Each taste receptor has an axon, which all remain separate to the brain. They all synapse on different parts of the gustatory cortex. This is known as the labelled lines model.

Ex. Glucose hits the tongue, activates a sweet cell (because it has sweet sensitive receptors), triggers cascade of events sp cell depolarizes, and travels down the axon to the brain.
Glucose binds the G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR), induces a conformation change, G-protein dissociates, opens ion channels, and causes the cell to depolarize and fire an action potential.

Answer 115

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The labelled lines model is the idea that once a taste receptor is activated, the taste receptor does not interact with the other four taste receptor types. That taste receptor type interacts with on distinct taste area of the cerebral cortex. The yello circle in the picture below represents the brain region associated with taste.

Answer 116

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Sweet, unami, and bitter cells have GPCR receptor types on them.

Answer 117

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Sweet and salty nerve cells rely on ion channels directly for signal transduction.

Sour and salty cells rely on ion channels for AP transmission. The sodium ions or sour ion types bind to the receptor directly. For example NaCl binds to a receptor and causes ion channels to open, and + ion outside to flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an action potential.

What happens if we put salty receptor inside a sweet cell? Receptors in membrane bind to glucose. But let’s insert a salty receptor. Since axon from cell leads to brain, if NaCl comes in, it activates the receptor, + ions go inside, sweet cell depolarizes and fires AP, and brain interprets it as a sweet signal.

Answer 118

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Consciousness is awareness of our self and environment. You can have different levels of consciousness (different levels of awareness) and can be natural or be induced by external factors such as drugs or internal such as mental efforts. The states of consciousness range from alertness to sleep.

Answer 119

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Alertness – you’re awake, aware of who you are, what’s going on in the environment, focus your attention, engage in conformation, and code information to your memory. Alertness is a state of consciousness.

Answer 120

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Daydreaming – feel more relaxed, and you are not as focused as you are as when you are alertness. Daydreaming is a state of conciousness that can also be self-induced through meditation.

Answer 121

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Drowsiness – just before falling asleep/ after waking up. Drowsiness is a state of consciousness that can also be self-induced in deep meditation.

Answer 122

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Sleep – is a state of consciousness inchich you are not aware of yourself or the worls around you.

Answer 123

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Electroencephalograms (EEGs) can measure your brainwaves.

The four main types of brainwaves: beta, alpha, delta, and theta.
Each brainwave type oscillates at a different frequency and the different frequency range is associated with different types of consciousness.
- Beta (13-30 Hz) – associated with awake/concetration state of concsciousness. If you are alert for too long, and beta levels get too high, you experience increased stress, anxiety, and restlessness – constant awakened alertness.
- Alpha (8-13 Hz) – associated with a daydreaming state of consciousness Alpha waves are lower in frequency than the beta waves/ Alpha waves disappear in drowsiness but reappear later in deep sleep.
- Theta (4-7 Hz) – slower/lower frequency than alpha waves. Theta waves occur during the drowsiness state of consciousness or right after you fall asleep or when you are sleeping lightly.
- Delta (0.5-3 Hz) – Slower/lower frequency than theta waves. Delta waves occur during deep sleep state of consciousness of coma.

You might not be aware of shifting from one stage of sleep to another, but your brain knows. You have set of neurons that fire rhythmically) in your CNS , which lead to neural rhythms (also called oscillations and commonly known as brain waves) that can be measured by EEGs.

Answer 124

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Sleep stages: Your brain goes through distinct brain patterns during sleep. The four main stages of sleep occur in 90 minute cycles.

Answer 125

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The first three stages of sleep are categorized by non-rapid eye movement sleep (non-REM) – N1, N2, and N3
- N1 (Stage 1): – Dominated by theta waves. Strange sensations – hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren’t there. For example, you may see a flash of light, someone calling your name, a doorbell ringing, etc. Or the Tetris Effect – if you play tetris right before bed, you might see blocks. During slee pyou may also experience the feeling of falling. This can cause hypnic jerks - muscle twitches you sometimes get as you fall asleep. Theta waves!
- N2 (Stage 2) – deeper stage of sleep. People in N2 are harder to awaken. We see more theta waves as well as sleep spindles and k-complexes.
  - Sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of the brain are associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises.
  - K-complexes surpress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation. Even though K-complexes occur naturally, you can also make them occur by touching someone else.
- N3 (Stage 3) – slow wave sleep. Characterized by delta waves. Where walking/talking in sleep happens.
REM (rapid eye movement) stage. Most of your other muscles are paralyzed. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. REM is the most important sleep stage for memory consolidation. REM is is good for episodic memory. REM is a combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves similar to beta waves seen when awake.
- REM is sometimes called paradoxical sleep because the brain is active and awake. However, the body prevents you from moving.
- Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream.

Answer 126

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Sleep cycles through these stages approximately four or five times throughout the night.
A sleep cycle takes 90 minutes to complete.
How long each stage lasts depends on how long you’ve been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep).
Sleep begins in stage 1 and progresses into stages 2, and 3. After stage 3 sleep, stage 2 sleep is repeated before entering REM sleep. Once REM sleep is over, the body usually returns to stage 2 sleep.

Answer 127

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A circadian rhythm is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It can refer to any biological process that displays an endogenous, entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours. These 24-hour rhythms are driven by a circadian clock, and they have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi, and cyanobacteria.

Circadian rythms are controlled by melatonin, which is produced in our brain’s pineal gland.
Circadian rythms control our body’s temperature and sleep cycle, etc
Light can inhibit melatonin production and, therefore, change our circadian rythm.
Older people go to bed early, and younger people tend to be night owls.

Answer 128

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Everybody dreams during REM sleep. You can tell someone is dreaming because the person’s eyes are moving rapidly under their eyelids and the individual’s brainwaves look like they are completely awake.

During dreaming, the activity in the prefrontal cortex during REM sleep is decreased – partly responsible for logic. The decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex is the reason things in our dream can defy logic and don’t seem weird.

Answer 129

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Sigmund Freud’s interpretation of dreams was that our dreams are our unconcious thoughts and desires that need to be interpretted. There is little scientific support for Freud’s interpretation.

Answer 130

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Evolutionary Psychology states that dreams are a threat simulation to prepare for real world, useful for problem solving, or no purpose and occur as a bunch of random neurochemical processes.

Answer 131

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The other possible theories for why we dream are to

maintain brain flexibility
consolodate thoughts to long term memory, and cleaning up thoughts. People who learn + sleep retain more than those who do not sleep. But role of REM is unclear.
preserve and develop neural pathways, Because infants constantly develop new neural networks spend most of their time in REM sleep.

Answer 132

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Sigmund Freud’s theory of dreams says dreams represent our unconscious feelings/thoughts. Like an iceberg.

What occurs during your dreams is what Freud labels as manifest content. For example, this could be a monster chasing you.
What is the hidden meaning of your dream is what Freud would label as latent content. For example the meaning behind the monster is that your job is pushing you out
Freud believes dreams help us resolve and identify hidden conflict.

Answer 133

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The Activation Synthesis Hypothesis states that the brain get much neural impulses in the brainstem (activation), and this neural impulse can be interpretted by the prefrontal cortex (synthesis). We try to make meaning from thee random impulses, meaning that dreams do NOT have any meaning!

Answer 134

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People with sleep deprivation might be more irritable and have poorer memory. This could be dangerous when it comes to flying airplanes or driving cars.

People with sleep deprivation are also more susceptible to obesity because the body makes more cortisol and more hunger hormone ghrelin.
Sleep deprivation can also increase your risk for depression. REM sleep helps the brain process emotional experiences, which can help protect us against depression (link is uncertain).
You can get back on track by paying back “sleep debt”.

Answer 135

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7-8 hours for adults. Varies with age and individual. Babies need a lot more.

An infant (age 4 months to 11 months) should get at least 12 hours.
A preschooler (age 3 to 5 years old) should get at least 10 hours of sleep a night.
A school age child (age 6 to 13 years old) should get at least 9 hours of sleep a night.
Older adults = at least 7 hrs

Answer 136

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Isomnia is a more serious form of sleep disorder. Isomnia is a persistent trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. There are various medications for this sleep disorder, but taking those medications can lead to dependence and tolerance.

Exercising 5 hours or more or relaxing before bed can help with Isomnia.

Answer 137

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Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder in which the individual can’t help themselves from falling asleep. People with narcolepsy have various fits of sleepiness and will periodically go into REM sleep for 5 minutes. They can fall asleep at anytime. narcolepsy effects 1 in 2000 people.

Research shows that this condition is genetic, and narcolepsy is linked to the abscence of an alertness neurotransmitter.

Answer 138

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Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder that effects 1 in 20 people. People with sleep apnea are often unaware they have it. People with sleep apnea stop breathing while sleeping. Your body then realizes that you are not getting enoguh oxygen and wakes up long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without being aware this occurred in the night. Waking up and going back to sleep can occur 100 times per night in individuals with sleep apnea.

People with sleep apnea do NOT get enough N3 (slow-wave) sleep.
Snoring or fatique in the morning is often an indication of having sleep apnea.

Answer 139

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Sleepwalking/sleep talking is mostly genetic and occurs during N3 (stage 3;slow wave) and is a harmless condition. It occurs more often in children (partly becuase they have more N3 stage sleep than adults).

Answer 140

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Sleeping problems can come from the brain, airways, lungs/chest wall.

Answer 141

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Obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night
- Air going into nose/mouth reaches the lungs. Tissues around neck may block this airflow – snoring/gasping/pauses in breathing. Called an apnea (absence of airflow).
- Called obstructive sleep apnea, very common and gets worse as people get older.
- People are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed when they wake up.
- 5+ apneas an hour (measured by polysomnography

Answer 142

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In the brain, called central sleep apnea. Presence of apneas without obstruction. Problem with the control system for ventilation.
- Cheyne-Stokes breathing (period of oscillations, then flat, etc.) pattern in polysomnography
In lungs or chest wall, hyperventilation can occur (high pCO2, low pO2). Caused by medication/obesity. Chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right-sided heart failure.

Answer 143

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Hypnotism usually involves getting an individual to relax and focus on breathing, and a person undergoing hypnotism becomes more suscptible to suggestion in this state – but only if the individual chooses to become more suggestable. There are more alpha waves in a state of hypnosis. This means the individual is in an awake but relaxed state.

Some use hypnosis to retrieve memories, very dangerous because memories are malleable. Can create false memories (False memory)- memories that incorporate hypnotizer’s expectations even when not intended.
There are two theories that discuss how hypnosis works. The first one is Dissociation Theory – hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness, and the second one is Social Influence Theory – people do and report what’s expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles.
Hypnotism is refocused attention, so sometimes it’s used to treat pain. There is reduced activity in areas that process sensory input. Although it does not block out pain, it might inhibit attention being brought to pain.

Answer 144

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Meditation – training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness. Meditation can be guided and focused on something in particulat, like breathing, but meditation can also be unfocused – mind wanders freely.

In light meditation, there are more alpha waves than in normal relaxation
In deep meditation, you have increased theta waves in the brain.
In people who regularly go to deep meditation, there is increased activity in their prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula – increased attention control (goal of meditation).
Meditation can be helpful for people with ADHD or in aging brains.

Answer 145

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Psychoactive Drugs: Drugs that can alter our consciousness, and perceptions. They can alter our perception, increase our mood, calm us down, make us feel more alert, etc. Classified by action and effects they have on our bodies.

Answer 146

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The four main categories of psychoactive drugs are depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens.

Answer 147

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Depressants are drugs that lower your body’s basic functions and neural activity. Depressants also lower you CNS (decrease arousal/stimulation in areas of our brain). For example, if I take a depressant, I will get a decrease in heart rate, drease in blood pressure, decreased processing and reaction time (makes us act/think slowly), etc. There are three categories of depressants: alcohol, barbituates, and benzodiapines.

Answer 148

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The most popular depressant is alcohol. Alcohol causes:

Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control
Lack of coordination, slurring of speech
Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (and form memories)

Answer 149

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Barbiturates are depressants. Barbiturates are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Barbiturates are used to depress your central nervous system.

The side effects of barbiturates are reduced memory, poor judgement, and lack of concentration. If you mix barbiturates with alcohol, you can literally die.

Answer 150

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Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant)

Enhance your brain’s response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged.
3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety.
-zelam, -zolam
Benzodiazepines and alcohol bind to a site on the GABAa receptor complex that regulates the sensitivity of the receptor complex

Answer 151

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Opiates are used to treat pain and anxiety. For example, heroine and morphine. Opiates are not a depressant.

Opiates are used to treat pain becuase they act at the body’s receptor sites for endorphins
Opiates are in a different class than depressants even though they are overlapping for anxiety, rest act on GABA receptors while opiates act on endorphin Rs.
Opiates lead to euphoria. The euphoria is the primary reason people take opiates recreationally.

Answer 152

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Stimulants are drugs that excite your CNS, increase heart rate and blood pressure, increase alertness, more awake, more energetic. Stimulants can cause people to feel jittery.

Examples of stimulants include: Caffeine, amphetamines (Adderall), Methamphetamines (Meth), MDMA (Molly/Ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, THC (Marijuana/Cannabis –also a hallucinogen/depressant)
Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake.
Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release
Caffeine inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
Nicotine acts on acetylcholine
THC works on anandamide. increases dopamine and GABA activity

Stimulant and depressants are functionally opposites but don’t actually work on the same things at a neurochemical level. Drinking coffee after drinking alcohol won’t make you sober; it will just make you an alert drunk person.

Stimulants are a vasoconstrictor.

Answer 153

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Psychoactive Drugs: Stimulants

Stimulate or intensity neural activity/bodily functions.
Range from caffeine to cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamines, and ecstasy. In between is nicotine.
(inhibits adenosine receptors) can disrupt your sleep. Nicotine also disrupts sleep and can suppress appetite.
- At high levels, nicotine can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters (to counteract hyper alertness).
- Both physiologically addicting.
- Withdrawal symptoms from both. Like anxiety, insomnia, irritability.
is even stronger stimulants – releases so much dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine that it depletes your brain’s supply. Intense crash and very depressed when it wears off.
- Regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and cardiac failure.
Amphetamines and methamphetamines also trigger release of dopamine, euphoria for up to 8 hours.
- Highly addictive
- Long-term addicts may lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine

Answer 154

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Hallucinagens are drugs that cause haullucinations– altered perception.

There are many types of hallucinagens. Some hallucinagens even have medical uses.

Ecstasy – synthetic drug that is both a stimulant and hallucinogen

Ecstasy increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. Ecstacy also stimulates the body’s NS. Ecstasy can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood.
Ecstasy causes hallucinations and heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness.

LSD – interferes with serotonin, which causes people to experience hallucinations.

Under the influence of LSD, hallucinations are visual instead of auditory.

Marijuana is also a mild hallucinogen. The main active ingredient in marijuana is THC, which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, and smells.

Marijuana is like alcohol becuase it reduces inhibition and impairs motor and coordination skills.
Marijuana disrupts memory formation and short-term recall.
Marijuana stays in the body for up to a week.
Marijuana is used as a medicine to relieve pain and nausea

Some hallucinagens are used for PTSD treatment. Hallucinaogens allow people to access painful memories from past that’s deteched from strong emotions – so they can come to terms with it.

Answer 155

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Homeostasis is how you maintain temperature, heartbeat, metabolism, etc. Homeostasis even occurs when you are resing. Homeostasis takes place when you take drugs.

Answer 156

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Topic of homeostasis.

If you take amphetamines (stimulant that increases your heart rate), your body quickly tries to lower your heart rate and get it back to normal. The brain is smart about this.
- If you are a regular drug user, you might take it at the same time of day or at the same location.
- If you’re a cocaine addict, your brain starts to recognize external cues like a room, needles, etc. and knows it’s about to get a big dose of drug. The brain tells the body to get a head start and the body then lowers your heart rate before you take drugs. This is the reason you need a higher dose as time progresses
What would happen if you get those cues and don’t get the drug? You get a crash. Your body is below homeostasis (lower HR/metabolism). No high (which would occur if you took the drug) to counteract the slowing down your body has created.
If you’re in a new location but take same level of drugs, you might get overdose. This is because in the new location your body has not prepared by reducing HR/metabolism.

Answer 157

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Oral is a route of drug entry. Oral is ingesting something. Oral is one of the slowest routes of drug entry becuase it goes through the GI tract, and the oral route of drug entry takes about a half hour.

Answer 158

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Inhalation is a route of drug entry. Inhalation is breathing, snorting, or smoking. Once you inhale a drug, it goes straight to the brain. It takes roughly 10 seconds to reach the brain. Inhalation is one of the faster routes of drug entry.

Answer 159

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Injection is a route of drug entry. Injection is the most direct and fastest route of drug entry. Intravenous means it goes right to the brain. When a drug gets injected, it takes effect within seconds. Injection can be very dangerous. It can be very dangerous because you are likely to inject bacteria or unexpected toxins) especially when using an infected needle.

Answer 160

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Transdermal is a slow route of drug entry. Transdermal form of drug entry is absorbed through the skin, ex Nicotine patch. The drug in the patch has to be pretty potent, released into the blood stream over several hours.

Answer 161

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Intramuscular is a route of drug entry into the human body. Intramuscular is stuck into the muscle. Intramuscular can deliver drugs into your system slowly or quickly. It is quick for an Epipen, but it can also be slow like with vaccines.

Answer 162

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As far as routes of drug entry is concerned, a faster route of drug entry implies there is more addictive potential for that drug.

Answer 163

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When you experience pleasure, your brain releases a neurotransmitter called dopamine. Dopamine is produced in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain.

The VTA sends dopamine to the amygdala (controls emotions), nucleus accumbens (Nacc, controls motor functions), prefrontal cortex (focus attention and planning), and hippocampus (part of the temporal lobe, involved in memory formation).
NAcc, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway.

Different stimuli activate the reward pathway circuit differently in the brain to different degrees.

Answer 164

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Tolerance means you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect.

Ex. Albert just takes cocaine, this reults in lots of dopamine in the synapse. The post-synaptic neuron has receptors for dopamine. Long-term stimulation can lead to the brain shutting down some receptors on the post synapse; therefore the same amount of drugs won’t cause the same high. This is called tolerance.
- Tolerance is a shift in the dose-response curve that causes decreased sensitivity to a drug due to exposure.

Answer 165

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Let’s say Albert goes through a period of not having the cocaine he is somewhat used to taking, Albert will then go through withdrawal symptoms.

Things less strong as cocaine won’t give you as strong of an effect, so dopamine levels will decrease and you will feel depressed, anxious, etc. (varies).
Albert will do whatever it takes to ge that high.
Once you built up a tolerance, you need the drug to feel normal again.
However, with time and effort, the brain can reverse back to normal.
Once you’ve built up tolerance, need drug to feel “normal” again, not euphoric. This is a sign you are addicted.

Answer 166

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Drugs are substances (substances = formal way to refer to a drug) that include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, opioids (heroin/morphine), stimulants (cocaine/amphetamines), hallucinogens (LSD), inhalants, sedatives, caffeine
We have to consider what happens when drugs enter the body and when they exit the body. There are two different processes that can take place: intoxication and withdrawal.
- Inoxication refers to behavioral and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific. Ex. “drunk” or “high”
- Withdrawal is when you stop using the drug after a prolonged period of time. We get withdrawal symptoms. We can become sick or ill, or it can be fatal (depending on the substance/drug) Two stages: acute and post-acute.

Can result in substance-induced disorders – conditions that are caused by substance. Can be substance induced mood disorders (high mood -mania/low mood - depression), or disorders related to anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis (loss of contact with reality, characterized by seeing things, hearing voices, becoming paranoid).

Answer 167

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I think substance-induced disorders can lead to substance use disorders. This can cause a real degree of impairment in life, at work, school, or home.

How do you know if someone has a substance use disorder? You can tell if a person has a substance use disorder by looking at their usage. Are they using increasingly large amounts, do they have stronger cravings, do they take longer time to recover from it, are they failing to cut back, is the drug effecting their obligations at work/home/school?
Second factor to determine if substance use disorder is the presence of withdrawal.
Also tolerance is a good indicator for substance use disorders.

For some reason, according to shill science, we can not develop a substance use disorder with caffeine.

Answer 168

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Drug Addiction is a medical problem that has a physiological or psychological component
Treatments for a drug addiction address both physiological + psychological symptoms.
For serious addictions, hospitalization might be needed as the patient goes through withdrawal, to ensure patient doesn’t hurt themselves, and the patient gets used to operating w/o drug

Answer 169

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To adequately treat a drug addiction, you have to undergo detoxification (detox) –separating the addict from the drug. Somes detoxification requires strong medications for strong addictions (have to break the addiction cycle). We often have to address symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, pain, etc.

For example, opiates such as heroine acts at neural receptors, but acts more slowly, so it dampens the high. Methadone reduces cravings, eases withdrawal, and the user can’t experience the high becuase the receptors are already filled by methadone.
For stimulants like tobacco, medications replace nocotine by delivering low levels of nicotine through a patch, or deliver chemicals that act on nicotine receptor in the brain. In this case prevents release or reuptake of dopamine. This helps to reduce cravings.
For alchoholics, meds block receptors in the reward system of alcohol. It also reduces symptoms of withdrawal. It is important to prevent relapse during this early stage by minimizing negative symptoms.

Answer 170

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A treatment for substance use disorders can be inpatient. Inpatient treatments require residence at a hospital or treatment facility. Outpatient means they can live at home and come in for treatment.

Answer 171

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Cognitive behavioral therapy is a way to treat substance use disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction. Cognitive behavioral therapy makes the person recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is good because it is long lasting.

Answer 172

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Motivational interviewing is a method to treat substance use disorders. Motivational interviewing involves working with a patient to find intrinsic motication to change. Motivational interviewing involves very few sessions and can be a doorway for patients to engage in another treatment.

Answer 173

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Group meetings are a method to treat substance use disorders. Group Meetings such as AA involve a 12-step program–acceptance, surrender, and active involvement in meetings.

There is strong evidence to show that group meetings are helpful.

Answer 174

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Relapse is when patient can slip and go back. Depends on environmental triggers and drug they were addicted too. More addictive substances make relapse more likely. Encountering anything that one used to associate with the drug makes relapse more likely as well. This is why it’s hard for people to stay clean (same situation, group of friends, apartments, etc – these cues can trigger relapse …why CBT can be helpful).

Answer 175

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Divided Attention: attention is a limited resource. Can’t split it very well. Doing 2x at once you end up switching between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously. Divided attention occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously.

Answer 176

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When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (ex: watch TV and studying together) you’re exercising your selective attention: you are selecting one at a time (either TV or studying – can’t do both). It’s like a flashlight on your attention –you can move it around at any spot. At any given moment illuminating one area of interest. Only have ability to focus on one thing at the exclusion of everything else.

Answer 177

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There are two types of cues that direct our attention: exogenous cues and endogenous cues

Exogenous cues (or external cues) are cues in which we don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention. For example, these could be bright colors, a loud noise, “pop out effect”.
Endogenous cues (or internal cues) are cues that require internal knowledge to understand the cue nd the intention to follow it. For example, a mouse arrow. We would need to an internal arrow to know what an errow is to follow it and know it is not just a random line.

The cocktail party effect is the ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name.

Answer 178

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In-attentional blindness – aka Perceptual Blindness - we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. “miss something right in front of you”

Answer 179

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Change blindness – fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from in-attentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don’t notice when your mom gets a haircut.

Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too

Answer 180

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Selective attention is the ability to focus on task at hand while ignoring other information.

Answer 181

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Shadowing task – Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don’t end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear. 3 theories: Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory, Deutch & Deutch’s Late selection Theory, and Treisman’s attenuation Theory. (Note there is still debate on which theory is best).

Answer 182

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1) Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory

o All information in environment goes into sensory register (which briefly registers/stores EVERYTHING/all sensory information you receive such as words, clicks, sirens, etc) then the info gets transferred to selective filter right away which identifies what you are supposed to be attending too via basic physical characteristics and filters out stuff in unattended ear based on things you don’t need to understand to identify (based on voice, pitch, speed, accents, etc) and finally information moves to perceptual processes identifies friend’s voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes such as deciding how to respond.

Sensory register –>selective filter–>perceptual process–>Conscious.

Some problems – if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t be able identify your own name in unattended ear –>but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

Answer 183

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2) Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory

Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness.
- Deutsch and Deutsch’s late selection theory moved the selective filter from before perception to after the perceptual process.
- Sensory register–>perceptual process–>selective filter–>Conscious
Some problems – This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won’t ever need.

o Acronym: The Dutch pay attention (perceptualize) to EVERYTHING!

Answer 184

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3) Treisman’s Attenuation Theory

Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator – weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important.
- Treisman’s Attenuation theory replaced the selective filter with an attenuator, which selectively allows the attended message to be processed to a greater extent than the unattended message.
- Sensoryregister–>attenuator–>perceptual process–>–>Conscious

§ Acronym: Triessman is SHARP as a T. He is smart enough to only attenuate and then perceive.

NOTE: Still debate about which theory is best, but the three theories are pivotal in our understanding of selective attention. Important to consider because attention is important in all other cognitive functions we perform

Answer 185

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Selective Attention: We take information from our environment, but we don’t consciously process all of it. You probably see everything, but don’t attend to it consciously. We can attend to only a small amount of info @ a time, but we see a lot of info!

Answer 186

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Spotlight model of attention. Selective attention – takes info from 5 senses, but don’t pay attention to everything.

Aware of things on an unconscious level – ex. Priming, where exposure to one stimulus affects response to another stimulus, even if we haven’t been consciously paying attention to it.
We’re primed to respond to our name. Why it’s a strong prime for pulling our attention.

Resource model of attention – we have limited resources in attention. Resources that are easily overtasked if we try to pay attention to multiple things @ once.

Both models say something about our ability to multitask – not very good at it.
Supported by research study: ex. Dichotic listening task, you aren’t able to focus on both the “attended channel” and the “unattended channel”. You are able to recall info from the attended channel, but not the unattended channel.

Answer 187

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Task similarity – ex. Listening to the radio while writing a paper. It is better to listen to classical music, becuase it is harder to multitask with similar tasks.
Task difficulty – harder tasks require more focus.
Practice – activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention. Whether task is automatic or controlled (harder)

Answer 188

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The information processing model proposes our brains are similar to computers. We get input from the environment, process it, and output decisions.

The information processing model assumes serial processing; however, the human brain has the capacity for parallel processing
The first stage is getting the input – occurs in sensory memory (sensory register). The sensory register is a temporary register of all the senses you are taking in. These two are part of the sensory register.
You have iconic (what you see, lasts half a second) and echoic (what you hear, lasts 3-4 seconds) memory

Answer 189

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Working memory is what you are thinking about at the moment. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. The magic number is 7– your brain can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time. The government knew this. This is the reason phone numbers are 7 digits long.

Explains the serial position effect (primacy and recency effects)
Visual + spatial info are processed in the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and verbal information (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed in the phonological loop.
What about visual + verbal information? We need a coordination of the two – the central executive fills that role. The central executive creates an integrated representation that stores the combined and sythesized information in the episodic buffer to be stored into long-term memory.
The dual coding hypothesis says it’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone. The method of loci encorporates the dual coding hypothesis idea to help people remember things better. The method of loci–imagine moving through a familiar place and in each place leaving a visual representation of the topic to be remembered.

Answer 190

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The final stage is long-term memory. The capacity of the long-term memory is unlimited. There are two main catagories of long term memory: explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative).

Answer 191

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Explicit Memory /Declarative are facts/events you can clearly/explicitly describe. Explicit memory is a type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories, episodic and semantic.

Anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals you’re using semantic memory (has to do with words/facts). So remembering simple facts like meanings of words.
Second type is episodic memory (event-related memories…like your last birthday party.).

Answer 192

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Implicit memories are long term memories that involve things you may not articulate – such as riding a bicycle, procedural memories.

Other is priming – previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event.

Answer 193

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Encoding is transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into the permanent store in long-term memory.

Encoding is more successful when more cognitive effort is actively used. Combining encoding strategies is more useful than using only one.

Encoding Specificity: Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

Answer 194

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Rote rehearsal – Say the same thing over and over remember. least effective technique. Ex. Remembering someone’s name is bob that you just met, and you can’t after a while. Doesn’t require you to process the information. More successful techniques involve tying in the new information to previously known information.

Rote rehearsal is simply repeating information. It requires the least amount of cognitive effort.

Answer 195

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Chunking – we group info we’re getting into meaningful categories we already know to ease memorization.

o Ex: Chunk the following list : bananas, oranges, blueberries, bread, rice, chicken, peanuts, baking soda, flour, eggs, butter
- Bananas, orange, blueberries = fruits
- Bread, rice = grains
- Chicken , peanuts = proteins
- Baking soda, flour, eggs, butter = baking supplies
- Example Illustrates that it’s easier to remember things if they are chunked/tied together in some way.

Answer 196

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Mnemonic Devices – Link what you are trying to learn into previously exist long-term

information that is already in your memory. Types of mnemonics:

Imagery - crazier the better
Pegword system - Verbal anchors link words that rhyme with the number – EX.1 is bun, 2 is shoe, 3 is tree, 4 is door, 5 is skydive, 6 is sticks, 7 is heaven, etc. Then you pair list to each of the words you are trying to remember using imagery (another mnemonic technique) like Broccoli looks like a tree so it’s 4th on the list.
Method of loci - good for remembering things in order, link info to locations. Tie information you need to remember to certain stops along a route that you already know. Ex. Bananas raining down on bus stop you get on, next stop there are oranges being thrown at, and the final stop you have a cat eating blueberries. Again, this method also ties imagery.
Pegword + Method of Loci (two methods that are good for remembering things in order that you already know. Verbally anchors and links words).
Acronym – each of the letter of a popular word you know stands for the first letters of a set of words you need to remember. [ex. HOMES to remember Great lakes of the US – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior]

Answer 197

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Self-referencing – think about new info and how it relates to you personally. Ex: Imagine learning something about history, you then learn the information by talking to the general.

Related idea: preparing to teach – idea that you are learning this material in order to teach it to someone else. You learn it a lot better because you put more effort into organizing it and understanding the information the best you can. (involves great deal of processing)

Answer 198

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Spacing – spreading out study sessions overtime in shorter periods rather than cramming them into one study session. [spacing effect]

Ex: Most people think if they have 5 hours to study they should study immediately before so it is “fresh in your mind” but if you put in 5x 1 hr sessions you will learn the information in the long term far better.

One reason it is thought to be helpful is it lets you know what you don’t know while you start your studying and it also introduces a form of self-testing so you are able to prepare yourself.

Most mnemonic devices/encoding techniques = greater likelihood of remembering information later. Do require more effort, but make studying quicker/more effective.

Answer 199

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Retrieval: Trying to remember/call up a memory of something you learned before. Successful retrieval depends on being able to use cues around you and to recognize the association between cues present at encoding and cues present at retrieval. Best types of cues are the associations that form when you are actually encoding.

Retrieval - Anytime you pull something out of long-term memory, and bringing it into conscious memory (working memory) you’re engaging in retrieval.

o Ex: Process is occurring every time you need to remember a name, bday, directions, etc.

Answer 200

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Priming – prior activation of nodes/associations, often without our awareness. Ex. hearing a story about apple and asked to name word starting with A. Then you say the word apple for that word. Ex: reading a story that is about rabbits and then hearing the word hair/hare – you are more likely to think of the word as hare.

Answer 201

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Context is the environment you encode and take the test. Scuba divers who learned and tested on the sam eplace scored better than learned in one place and took the test in another. But not always the case, if you can’t take the test in the same place studying in different places gives you different cues for retrieval –so multiple cues that will help you.

Answer 202

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State-dependent is your state at the moment. For example, if you leanr something while drunk you’ll remember it the next time you are drunk. You could also combine your mood with an advertisement – next time you are in that moodm you will remember the product.

Answer 203

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Free recall (hardest), cued recall (medium), and recognition (easiest)

Answer 204

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Free recall ( this is a retrieval cue) - no cues in recalling. A person is better at recalling first items on a list (primacy) as well as the last few (recency). It is harder for an individual to recall items on a list in the middle. The curve is called the serial position curve/effect.

Answer 205

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Cued recall ( this is a retrieval cue)– having extra clues to remember the workds. Still have to produce an answer but still get more cues to help you. The added cues help you retrieve the information from your long term memory. The more retrieval cues you get, the more you tend to do better than free recall. For example, giving you the cue of “Pl_____” and asking for what word was on a list and you answer “planet”. This would be very easy.

Answer 206

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Recognition ( this is a retrieval cue) – best out of the three tests, meaning the word is the easiest to recall using this method. You present two words, and you say which one you heard. The retrieval of the correct word is highly likely. For example, you can ask what is on that list. Fork or spoon, and then you answer fork because it was on the list intially presented and it is in front of you now.

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Brain doesn’t save memories exactly how it was recorded into your brain. Every time we retrieve a memory, we change it in small ways, according to our goals/mood/environment. Or due to our own desires. If gap exists, the brain will fill it in with something desireable.

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Schema (plural schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.[1] It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information.[2] Schemata influence attention and the absorption of new knowledge: people are more likely to notice things that fit into their schema, while re-interpreting contradictions to the schema as exceptions or distorting them to fit.

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Sometimes humans recollections of event contain false information in them. False information is inaccurate recollections of an event.

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Misleading Information – observed video of a car crash, and asked how fast cars were going. Some people got the word hit, and some people go the word “smash”. If people recieved the word “smashed”, the people were mor elikey to say there was glass on the ground.

When people recall information they often forget the information’s source – an error in source monitoring, ex. angry with someone but you forgot it happened in a dream. Or recognize someone but don’t know from where.

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Emotional memories can be positive or negative, but highly vivid memories are called flashbuld memories. Even if flashbulb or emotional memories seem as real as life, they are still susceptible to reconstruction.

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The brain doesn’t grow new cells to store memories – connections between neuron strengthen. The strengthening of neurons and neuron connections is called long-term potentiation. Long term potentiation is one example of of synaptic plasticity.

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Neurons communicate using electrochemical signals –through synapse. Presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na and Ca to flow in. The difference in charge between the outside and inside is called the potential.

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With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neurn converts into greater post-synaptic neuron –stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called long-term potentiation. This is learning!

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Decay – when we do not encode something well or don’t retrieve it for a while, we can’t at all anymore. The connections will become weaker over time. The initial rate of forgetting is high but levels off over time.

Ebbinghaus was the first investigator of decay. He found this rate of forgetting was very fast, but if he remembered it after the initial stage, it then levelled out.

Answer 216

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Just because you can’t retrieve something doesn’t mean it’s completely gone. How long it takes you to relearn something is an indicator of how well you learned it initially. This foundation is called savings. This means that some foundation of the memory still existed even if he couldn’t reproduce it.

Works with procedural skills too! ex. piano

Answer 217

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Sometimes there is an interference to learning. There are two types of interference: retroactive and proactive.

Retroactive interference occurs when new learning impairs old information. It refers to the later information interfering with memory for earlier information
- ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address.
Proactive interference - something you learned in the past impairs learning in the future. Earlier information interferes with later information.
- ex. New password learning – prior w learning impairs ability to learn new one.

Answer 218

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Aging is a natural process and with it come changes in memory. Most people associate aging with declines in cognitive performance, but some abilities decline, some remain stable, and some improve.

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Some cognitive abilities remain stable throughout the aging process. These include implicit memory (aka procedural memories such as riding a bike) and recognition memory (being able to pick something out of a list).

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Some cognitive abilities improve throughout the aging process. Semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). Also, crystallized IQ (ability to use knowledge and experience) is improved. Crystallized IQ is typically tested with analogy tests and reading comprehension tests. Aging individuals are also better at emotional reasoning.

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Some cognitive abilities decline throughout the aging process. Recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), episodic memories are imparied (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories are stable), processing speed (older peolpe have a harder time outputting a response), and divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and becomes easily distracted). Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future) is decreased.

Answer 222

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Excessive forgetting can be problematic
Dementia is forgetting to the point of interfering with normal life – results from excessive damage to brain tissue, ex. From strokes.
- The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s Disease. Under this disease condition neurons die off over time. The earliest symptoms are memory loss, lack of attention, bad at planning, loss of semantic memory, and loss of abstract thinking. As it progresses, there becomes a more severe language difficulties and greater memory loss, loss of emotional stability, and loss of bodily functions. The cause of the disease is unknown, but there is a build up of amyloid plaques in the brain.

Answer 223

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Korsakoff’s Syndrome is caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Korsakoff’s syndrome is caused by malnutrirtion, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism.

Thiamine converts carbohydrates into the glucose cells need for energy. Thiamine is important for normal functioning neurons.
At the start of Korkasoff’s syndrome, damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss. At this stage, it is called Wernicke’s Encephalopathy – precursor to Korsakoff’s Syndrome. If Wernicke’s Encephalopathy is diagnosed in time it can reverse the damage or at least prevent further damage. If untreated, it will progress to Korsakoff’s syndrome, which has a main symptom of severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation ( patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories).
Korsakoff’s syndrome is not progressive, unlike Alzheimer’s Disease. If people are diagnosed and treated, they can get better.
The main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation for korsakoff’s syndrome.
To treat Korsakoff’s Syndrome you have to be put on a healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins, and relearn things.

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Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall information previously encoded, and anterograde amnesia is the inability to encode new memories.

Answer 225

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Piaget argued children weren’t miniature adults. Beleived they actively construct their understanding of the world as they grow.

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Piaget’s stage of cognitive development. 0-2 years – children are said to be in the sensorimotor stage (smell, hearing, tough etc. +active). During this stage, they develop object permanence. Initially, they do not realize objects still exist if they can’t see them. Then, they develop object permanence and realize the object still exists if it can not see the object. You can also use accomodation to acquire knowledge about novel experiences. Baby ants riding a motorcycle.

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2-7 years (approx.) – Preoperational stage. When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play. They are very egocentric in this stage, and they have no empathy.

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7-11 years – concrete operational stage. In this stage, they learn the idea of conservation. Can do test to find out if they are in this stage – take 2 glasses with the same amount of water, pour one into short fat glass and other into tall skinny glass, and ask the child which one has more. Before this stage will say tall glass, but once they reach the concrete operational stage, have same amount of water. Also begin to learn empathy.

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12+ Formal operational stage – reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences. Where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place.

Later, developmentalists have come and figured out that children don’t necessarily develop these abilities in certain age brackets, but they do tend to progress in a predictable fashion and thanks to Piaget now we know that children are more than just miniature adults.

Answer 230

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We are excellent problem solvers. Well-defined (clear starting and ending point) and ill defiend (more ambiguous starting/ending point and no obviously stated goals) problems.

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Problem Solving: moving from a current state to a goal state. This is called solving a problem.

Can be something as simple as starting a YouTube video

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A method of problem solving: Trial + error. Trial + error is taking random guesses until something finally works. It is not efficient.

Answer 233

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A method of problem solving: Algorithm – methodical approach. A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions until you hit the rigth one. It is not efficient, but you are guaranteed to find the correct solution enventually.

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A method of problem solving: Heuristics. A heuristic is a mental shortcut to find a solution quicker than the other 2, ex. Focusing on one category of solutions.

Means-end analysis – we analyze the main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal.
Working backwards – start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to the current state. It is used in mathematical proofs.

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A method of problem solving: Intuition. Using intuition as a method of problem solving has a high chance of error becuse you are relying on instinct.

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Fixation – Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem.

If we can start solving the problem, it typically occurs through an insight – that aha moment. Insight is hard to predict and hard to encourage, particularly when you are fixated on seeing a problem from the same inefficient approach.
Or we can let problem incubate – insight comes after some time.

Answer 237

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Type 2 Error = False Negative, and a Type 1 Error = False Positive

Answer 238

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Decision making: We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome

You use heuristic – a mental shortcut to make a decision, a quick decision rule/rule of thumb. Lots of kinds of heuristics used for decision making. Help us make decisions.

o Ex.. What has a higher risk- Shark attack vs firework accident?

Answer 239

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Availability Heuristic – using examples that come to mind. Helpful, but our easily rememberable experiences don’t match the real state of the world.

The availability heuristic is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples.

Answer 240

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Representativeness Heuristic – a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match the prototype – a given concept to what is typical/representative.

Ex: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don’t know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist).
This can lead to conjunction fallacy, which means occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one (ex. Feminist Bank Teller vs. bank teller – actually more likely she is just a bank teller, but peole tend to think the probability of 2 events occuring together is higher than the probability of one occurring alone).

Answer 241

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Availability Heuristic vs. Representativeness Heuristic – availability heuristic = actual memories in mind, and representativeness heuristic = not thinking of exact memories, but thinking of a prototype of idea.

Answer 242

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Biases are things that prevent us from making the correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made. Here are three bias types below.

Overconfidence – ex. Going into th etest without knowing lot of information.It could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying. Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. You can over estimate the ability to produce answerswhen you need too. You can also experience overconfidence in an argument.
Belief Perseverence – ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During the elections you leanred about and then ignored facts about someone you like.
Confirmation Bias – actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful a candidate was.

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Framing Effects – how you present the decision or data can affect decisions as well. For example, There is a disease that willkill 600 people. Option A states that there is a 100% chance 200 people will be aved, and option B states that there is a 33.3% chance that all 600 people will be saved. Which one would you pick? OR There is a A. 100% chance 400 people will die vs. B. 1/3 chanve no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 will die.

In the first you’d pick A. In the second, you would pick B.
Basically, you would pick the option that is presented in a way that primarily focuses on the positive.

Answer 244

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To solve problems, you have to acess information already stored in your brain.
Semantic Networks are concepts that are organized in the mind in terms of connected ideas. Parallel to how info might be stored in a computer. Links can be shorter for closely related ideas, or longer for less related ideas.

Answer 245

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The first idea of a semantic network model that was proposed was hierarchal –higher order to lower order categories

Ex. Animal -> bird -> ostrich
More specific characteristics like sings, long legs, stored at lower nodes. Can breathe at higher nodes.
The longer it takes us to verify the connection between nodes, the longer it takes for us to make that link or the farther away that link is).

Answer 246

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The first model of a semantic network was hierachal. However, later studies showed that a hierarchal semantic network was NOT true for all animals/categories. For example, people verify that a pig is an animal faster than it takes people to verify that a pig is a mammal. Therefore, a man proposed a modified semantic network.

Rather than hierarchal, the modified semantic network says every individual semantic network develops based on experience and knowledge.
The modified semantic network means all ideas in the head are connected together. When you activate one concept, pulling related concepts with it, it is called spreading activation. ( This can explain false memories, or remembering the wrong but related information).

Answer 247

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IQ is Intelligence Quotient
What is intelligence? Inelligence is a mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and use your knowledge to adapt t new situations. IQ tests use numerical scores to meaure aptitude for those tasks and compare them to how ell others do.

Answer 248

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One theory for what intelligence is is that there’s 1 general intelligence.

Evidence comes from the fact that people who score well on one test also tend to score well on other types of tests. For example, a person with really good math skills will likely also have really good verbal skills.
The factor underlying these consistent abilities is called g factor (g = general intellgence)

Answer 249

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There is also support for IQ theories on there being 3 intelligences – analytical (Academic), creative (generate novel ideas and adapt), practical (solve ill-defined probems).

IQ tests only measure analytical intelligence

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Another psychologist proposed emotional intelligence, which is the ability to percieve, understand, and manage emotions in interactions with others.

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Intelligence can also be separated an conceptualized in two major categories: fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid is the ability to reason quickly and abstractly. Crystallized refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

Fluid intelligence tends to decrease a we move into older adulthood, and crystalized intelligence increases or stays the same as we grow older.

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On what makes or forms one intelligence, there is the question of nature vs. nurture. How much of intelligence is due to genes and how much is due to the environment/experiences

Study heritability by looking at correlational scores of twins who grew up in different homes, identical twins raised together, and fraternal twins raised together.
What e know is of the 3 groups, the strongst correlation is between identical twin raised together. identical twins raised apart is not as high, suggesting there is an environmental component. Fraternal twins are even lower, suggesting also a genetic component.

Answer 253

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As of right now, there is no recipe for structuring an environment to make a genius, even though we know environments that would impair intelligence.

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Some people have a fixed mindset (intelligence is biologically set and unchanging), and others have a growth mindset (intelligence is chageable if you learn more). Those with the growth mindset accomplish more.

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There are generally four ideas on intelligence:

Spearman’s idea of general intelligence – single g factor responsible for intelligence that underliesperformance on all cognitive tasks
Gardner’s idea of 8 intelligences– differentiates intelligenceintodifferent modalities.
Galton’s ideaof hereditary genius – human ability is hereditary
Binet’sidea of mental age – how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years.

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There are many ideas on language and cognition. The spectrum of what they try to explain ranges from explaining that langugage influences your thought to the thought influences your language. I guess there are theories on language and language development.

Behaviorists– are empiricists that believe language is just conditioned behavior. Nativists – rationalists that believe language must be innate. Materialist – look at what happens in the brain when peope think/speak/write.

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Some languages only have 2 words for color. But does that mean we think about color differently? Great Language Debate

Universalism - thought determines language completely.
Piaget – he believed once children were able to think a certain way, and then developed language to describe those thoughts.
Vygotsky (middle) – language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at the same time.
Linguistic Determinism – weak and strong hypothesis
- Weak: language influences thought (reading right to left vs. left to right influences what direction youamagine girl pushing boy)
- Strong (aka Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis): people understand their world through language, nad language in turn shapeshow we experience the world. For example, there is a tribe called the Hopi tribe without grammatical sense – they could not think about time in the same way as us.
Of the four theories out there, no one really knows which one is correct.

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Nativist (innatist) perspective – children are born with the ability to learn language. The nativist perspective is associated with Naom Chomsky. Naom Chomsky thought humans had a language aquisition device (LAD, later renamed univeral grammar) that allowed them to learn language. Idea that is ability is exists has support from languages sharing the same basic elements like nouns, verbs, etc. So this allows children to pick up on that. It goes along with the idea of a “critical period”. The critical period is thought to be from birth to age 9, which is the period of time a child is most able to learn a language.

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Behavioral Learning Theory of Language Development – children aren’t born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement. The child learns to say “mama” because everytime they say that, the mom reinforces the child. However, it doesn’t explain how they can produce words they’ve never heard before.

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The interactionist theory or approach to language development believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children’s desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language. The Interactionist Theory of Language Development is associated with Vygotsky.

Answer 261

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Behaviorists – BF Skinner’s behaviourist model says infants are trained in language by operant conditioning.
The linguistic relativity hypothesis asserts that congition and perception are determined by language one speaks.

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For 90% of people, anguage is in the left hemisphere. In whatever hemisphere is dominant, there are two main areas associated with language: Broca’s area (speak) and Wernicke’s area (understand)

When Broca’s area is damaged, people have trouble producing speech. Broca’s aphasia
Wernicke’s aphasia is a different pattern of behavior –words they make do not make any sense. Can’t understand what others say.
When both broca’s area and wernicke’s area are damaged, there is global aphasia.
2 areas are connected by a bundle of nerves arcuate fasciculus, also found in deaf people who knowsign language. Not specific to spoken language, but brain adapts to whatever modality is needed for communication.
When this is damaged, conduction aphasia – ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted.

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Agraphia (inability to write), and anomia (inability to name things).
Language is an example of big tasks brokeb into small takss, spread into other parts of the brain. Good thing becuase if you have localized brain damage, you won’t completely lose everything. When functionsare divided, it is easier for your brain to adapt – ex. When stroke affects the left hemisphere, and you can’t speak, over time with therapy some can retrain other speech parts of the brain by creating new connections – neural plasticity. Can speak again with some fluency.

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If you sever the corpus callosum, it will disrupt communication in your brain. Disrupting the corpus callosum will create a split-brain patient. This surgery creates side effects with language – right side of brain can’t communicate with the language side.

The left side of the brain is needed for language, and the right side of the brain is needed for action/perception/attention.
If you see the object on the left, you won’t be able to name it. Can pick it up with you left hand (since right side controls the left), but the object has to be in the right visual field beforethe brain can name it.
For example, showing colors on the left side of the visual field, information is sent to the right hemisphere, which is responsible for perception/attention, but can’t speak it, because left brain is needed for language.

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Limbic System: A set of structures in the brain, and many structures play an important role in regulating emotions. Experts can’t agree on what structures make up the entire limbic system.

The limbic system is responsible for the storage/retrieval of memories, especially ones tied to emotions.
Structure of the limbic system: acronym: hippo wearing a HAT (HAT Hippo). Mnemonic: hippo wearing a HAT. Hypothalamus, amygdala,

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Thalamus – sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. end up in the thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in the cortex. Emotions can be contigent on senses. Smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus – goes to areas closer to the amygdala.

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Amygdala–aka aggression center. If you stimulate the amygdala, it produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety. If you destroy the amygdala, you get a mellowing effect. Kluver-Bucy syndrome – bilateral destruction of the amygdala, can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior. This is also part of the limbic system.

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Hippocampus – key role in forming new memories. The hippocampus converts STM (short term memory) into LTM (long term memory). If your hippocampus is destroyed, you still have your old memories intact, you just can’t make new memories (anterograde amnesia). This is part of the limbic system.

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Hypothalamus (hypo – below, thalamus, tiny structure) – for limbic system, it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system by triggerring hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, and sex. This is part of the limbic system.

Answer 270

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Role of cerebral cortex in emotions. One way to view the brain is in terms of left and right hemispheres.

Positive emotions evoke more activity on the left side of your head, and negative emotions evoke more activity on the right side of your head.
People who are more positive and cheerful have more activity on the left side of their brain, and people who are more depressed and timid have more activity on the right side of their brain.

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If you divide the brain into functional divisions, you can focus on the prefrontal cortex.

The prefrontal cortex is responsible for many higher order functins, everything that makes humans humans. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive control - solving problems, making decison, and how you act in social situations.
Phineas Gage had an iron rod penetrate his prefrontal cortex. After the incident, he became rude, rought, and generally behaved inappropriately.

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The autonomic nervous system is involved in your emotional response. The physiological changes that occur which aren’t under your control are due to the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

The autonomic nervous system has two branches – sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest). Each branch reults in different actions that occur in your body.

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The sympathetic nervous system is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the fight or flight response.

Sympathetic: “results due to fear” – effects:
- pupils dilate (want to be able to see better/bring in more light),
- Decrease in salivation (nervous when you are doing public speaking)
- increase in repiration rate (more O2)
- increase in heart rate (more O2)
- Increase in glucose release (more energy)
- Increase in adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine
- Decrease in digestion (takes too much energy, want to divert the energy to other areas)

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The parasympathetic nervous system is one of the branches of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system is involved in the “rest and digest response; it has the opposite effects of the sympathetic nervous system.

pupils constrict
Increased salivation
Decreased respiratory rate/decreased heart rate (back to normal)
Increased glucose storage (digesting food)
Decreased adrenaline
Increased digestion.

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Emotions are subjective experiences accompanied by physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes. Each of these things are interrelated. Every emotion produces different physiological changes in the body which can include changes in patterns of brain activation, neurotransmitter production, autonomic nervous system activity

Physiological components – when surprised, your heart rate might increase, muscles will tense, and your temperature will increase.
Cognitive – vay fromperson to person, they’re mental assessments that can include appraisal of what is happening, thoughts and expectations about a situation. Cognitive experiences result from emotions, and can cause emtions. Ex. Someone might hate a surprise party.
Behavioural – emotions produce different behavioral responses evident from body language or facial expression. Expressions vary by individual and are interpretted differently from culture to culture.

Emotions are temporary (unlike moods which can last much longer, example of mood: anxiety). Emotions can be positive or negative. Can vary in intensity. Emotions can be involuntary (why we use phrases such as falls in love, explodes with range, overwhelmed w/ excitement)

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Paul Ekman found 6 main universal emotions which can be identified by everyone around the world – happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, and surprise. Consistent facial expressions across culture and easily recognizable. (acronym: 6 universal emotions are: FAHDSS)

Darwin hypothesized ability to understand emotion is an innate ability that allowed them better survival.

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Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about.

The James–Lange Theory of emotion states that the experience of emotion is due to the perception of physiological responses. For example, holdin a pet cat leads to increased heart rate/neurotransmitters/smile, then happiness. When you are sad, you don’t cry becuase you are sad, you’re sad because you cry.
- Event –> Physiological response (PR) –> Interpretation of PR –>Emotion

Answer 278

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Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about.

Cannon-Bard Theory – disagreed with James-Lange, noticed many different emotions had the same physiological responses. Cannon-Bard believed a physiological response and emotion occurred simultaneously.
- Simultaneously experience arousal and aggression.
- An event leads to a physiological response and emotion at the same time.

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Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about.

Schachter-Singer (two factor theory of emotion) – physiological and cognitive responses occur simultaneously form the experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don’t feel a specific emotion until we’re able to label/identify a reason for the situation.
Event–>PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously)–>Emotion

Answer 280

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Emotion is made of 3 components: cognitive, physiological, and behavioural responses. However, we are not sure which of these three components come first to an emotion. There are four different theories on the order of the three components of emotion or how the emotion comes about.

Lazarus Theory – experience of emotion depends on how the situation is appraised (labelled). Ex. Event –> labelling situation (cognitive) –> emotion + physiological response. How we label an event is based on cultural/individual differences.
- The interpretation of the event leads to arousal and aggression.

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James-Lange: physiological –> emotion

Cannon-Bard: physiological +emotion

Schatcher-Singer: physiological + cognitive –> emotion

Lazarus: cognitive –>emotion +physiological

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The limbic system is involved in emotion: the amygdala is the conductor of emotional experiences, communicating between the hypothalamus (physiological) and prefronatl cortex (behavioural). The amygdala plays a hey role in fear and aggression.

Emotions that are associated with memories are stored in the hippocampus.
The prefrontal cortex is involved in decision making, and reducing emotions. It also has executive functions – higher order processes such as planning/organizing/inhibiting/etc.

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People perform best when they are moderately aroused – the Yerkes-Dodson Law, a bell shaped curve.

The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve.
This means that extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively.
Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

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Stress is the process by which we appraise and cope with the environmental threads and challenges. It encompasses both the stressor and the stress reaction.

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There is a stressor (dog) and the stress reaction (bunny’s physical and emotional response). Stress is the process encompassing both.

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Stress arises less from actual events and more from our interpretation of events – appraisal theory of stress. There are two stages to the cognitive stages of stress – the primary appraisal and the secondary appraisal.

Primary appraisal – assessing stress in the present situation. 3 categories of the response to this primary appraisal – irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful. If primary appraisal is negative, you then move forward with the secondary appraisal
Secondary appraisal – what is material preparedness to deal with the stressor. Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it).

Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.

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There are four main categories of stressors.

Significant life changes – changes in your personal life. Ex. Death of loved one, marriage, loss of job, having children, leaving home, etc.

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There are four main categories of stressors.

Catastrophic events – A large scale event that everyone considers threatening. Ex. wars, natural disasters etc.

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There are 4 main categories of stressors.

Daily hassles – Seemingly minor events/hassles of daily life Ex. long store lines, forgetting car keys, aggravating roommates, email spam, car engine burns out, finding dog poop on your carpet, and tire punctured, expectations not communicated well b/w you and your spouse, inability to let go of an unobtainable goal etc.
- Daily hassles often accompanies low SES- inadequate income or unemployment
- For minorities Daily hassles might include racism.
- Many consider (like Mike Lazarus and Connor McDonald) the most important form of stress.

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There are 4 main categories of stressors.

Ambient stressors – Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding

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Stressors like threats and dangers trigger our fight or flight system – the sympathetic nervous system.

See increased heart rate and respiration (more energy + oxygen), increased peripheral vasoconstriction (push more blood to our core area – harder to live without blood), and turn off digestion/immune/etc.
Endocrine response - adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine, and cortisol
Tend and befriend response -sometimes better response to stress is to have support systems. Oxytocin is important for this – peer bonding. Oxytocin is strongly linked to estrogen, so this is the reason the oxytocin response is stronger in women.

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There are three distinct stages of stress – General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), The three phases are by Hans Salye

The first stage is the Alarm phase – stress reaction kick in, heart races, resources mobilized –”ready for the fight or flight:

Answer 293

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There are three distinct stages of stress – General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), The three phases are by Hans Salye

The second stage is the resistance phase – fleeing, huddling, temperature elevated, BP high, breathing rate high, and your body is bathed in cortisol

Answer 294

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There are three distinct stages of stress – General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), The three phases are by Hans Salye

The third stage is the exhaustion stage – if resistance isn’t followed by recovery, our body’s stress resources are depeleted, our tissues become damaged, and our dampened immunity can make ussusceptible to illness. It is a negative impact of long term stress.

We are equipped to short-term stress. But if we have them daily, but there will be serious negative consequences if they are maintained daily/long term.

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There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our heart.

Increased blood pressure, blood vessels distend, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. This can lead to hypertension and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels – get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. The worst place to experience this is the coronary arteries –coronary artery disease.

Answer 296

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There are physical effects from stress. During stress, our body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. If stress is psychosocial, we don’t need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes.

Answer 297

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There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our reproductive health.

Reproduction is a huge energy expense in women, so this gets shut down during the stress response. Impotence is often caused by stress.

Answer 298

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There are physical effects from stress. Stress has damaging effects on our immune function.

Stress causes inflammation – acute stress can lead to overuse of the immune system. You immune cells can attack your own body.

Answer 299

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The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.

The Central Nervous System equals the brain and spinal cord
- The brain includes the cerebrum, cerebral hemispheres, brain stem (midbrain, pons, and medulla), and cerebellum.
- The brain in development can be divided in to three general categories: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
  - The forebrain becomes the cerebrum.
  - The hindbrain becomes the pons/medulla/cerebellum
  - The midbrain becomes the midbrain.

Answer 300

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The sturcture of the nervous system is divided into two general categories: the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.

The Peripheral Nervous System = everything else. Cranial (12 pairs) + spinal nerves (31 pairs)
- Nerves, ganglia. Afferent and efferent neurons

Answer 301

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There are two main and general functions of the nervous system: Basic and Higher Order Functions.

The basic functions of the nervous system include motor (control of the skeletal muscle), sensory (the senses), automatic (reflexes)
The higher order functions of the nervous system include congnition (thinking), emotions (feelings), and consciousness.

Answer 302

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Lower motor neurons – efferent neurons of the PNS, controls skeletal muscle. skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit. The muscle and axon terminals form a neuromuscular junction.

Answer 303

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Abnormalities can occur in the motor unit – weakness.
Abnormalities of the lower motor neurons can cause the lower motor neuron signs (LMN signs) which can happen in addition to weakness.
- LMN signs include atrophy of the skeletal muscle, fasciculations (involuntary twitches of the skeletal muscle), hypotonia (decrease in tone of the skeletal muscle – how much muscle is contracted when a person is relaxed), hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex).

Answer 304

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For peripheral somatosensation, somatosensation includes 5 main ones - position sense, vibration, touch, pain, and temperature.

Position + vibration + touch = mechanoreceptors, pain = nociceptors, temperature = thermoreceptors
One of the differences between the two types is how big their axons are – position/vibration/touch receptors have large diameter axons. They have a thick myelin sheath. Fast transduction travelling
The rest have small diameter axons and less myelin, so the signal transduction travels much slower.
Touch is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise info travels in slower neurons

Answer 305

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There are many receptors found in the skin. Ex. Mechanoreceptors, one type close to the skin, another type lower. Also some in deep tisse, deep in muscle that detects stretch. Ones in muscle are important for position, and ones in skin are important for vibration/touch.

Pain and temperature receptors end in uncovered terminals, don’t have big structures like mechanoreceptors.

Receptors send info down afferent axons.

Answer 306

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The muscle stretch reflex topic.

Reflexes have 2 parts – afferent (stimulus) and efferent (response)

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The muscle stretch reflex causes a muscle to contract after it’s stretched, as a protesctive response. Ex. Knee jerk response – involuntary response of leg kicking out. The hammer hits the tendon right below the knee cap, which hooks onto the loower leg bone on one end, and a large group of upper muscles on the other. Muscles are called muscle spindles.

Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in the spinal cord with another neuron in th espinal cord, which sends the axon out back to the same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract – lower motor neurons (efferent)
The muscle on the underside of the leg is inhibited when the top side of the leg is excited. This is necessary for the reflex to occur.

Answer 308

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Gray matter contains most of the neuron somas.
White matter contains myelinated axons
In the spinal cord, grey matter is on the inside and white matter is on the ourside
For the brain, white matter is on the inside and grey matter is on the outside. Axons also go down tracts of white matter.

Answer 309

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Lower Motor Neurons (LMN) control the muscles of the lower limbs and trunk, while LMNs that pass through cranial nerves control muscles of the head and neck
Upper Motor Neurons (UMN) control the LMNs. Upper Motor Neurons are found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on the LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord.
Can divide them into tracts depending on if they go to the brainstem, or spinal cord.
- UMN starts in the cerebral cortex, axon travels down through the brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down the other side until they reach the LMN. This collection of axons is called the corticospinal tract.
- If it goes to the brainstem, it is called the corticobulbar tract.

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Signs that your Upper Motor Neurons (UMN) are damaged:

Hyperreflexia – increase in the muscle stretch refleses. The cause is unclear, but when the muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of the LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get a bigger reflex.
Clonus – rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if your doctor pullson foot, it activates the muscle stretch reflex, so it triggers the antagonist muscles.
Hypertonia – increased tone of skeletal muscles.
Extensor Plantar Response – if you take a hard object and scrape along the bottom of a foot, the normal response is a flexor response – meaning toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. (I am not sure if this is a sign of UMN damage….)

Answer 311

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Somatosensory tracts. Somatosensory information travels in different pathways. In general, there are two big categories: 1. position sense, vibration sense, and fine touch and 2. pain, temperature, gross touch
Somatosensory tracts deliver information to the spinal cord.
The spinal cord carries information to the brain in one of the tracts. Crosses other side immediately, then goes to the cerebrum
Why injury to one side of the brain often results in damage to the other side

Answer 312

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Frontal Lobe – motor cortex (body movements), prefrontal cortex (executive function, surprise/ direct other areas of the brain), Broca’s area (speech production)

Answer 313

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Parietal lobe – somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D)

Somatosensory cortex: motor cortex (frontal) + somatosensory cortex (parietal). Somatosensory cortex - involved in receiving sensory signlas from the skin.

Answer 314

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Occipital Lobe – vision, “striate cortex” (striated cells)

Answer 315

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Temporal Cortex – sound, Wernicke’s area

Answer 316

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These are the functions of the cerebellum:

The cerebellum coordinates movement: motor plan information is sent to the cerebellum. The cerebellum also recieves position sense information (ex. muscle stretch fibers), and sends feedback to the cerebellum and motor areas of the motor cortex.
The middle of the cerebellum coordinates middle body movement and walking, while the sides are involved in movements of the limbs – arms and legs. Also speech and movement of the eyes

Answer 317

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The brainstem connects all parts of the brain together, including the cranial nerves.
The brainstem is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.
Long Tracts – collections of axons connecting the cerebrum and brainstem. There are two long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs), and somatatosensory.
Cranial nerves – most of the cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many thing. 12 pairs. All sorts of functions.

Answer 318

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There are neuron somas scattered throughout brainstem is the reticular formation – big role in autonomic functions, and controlling things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions.

Answer 319

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There are specific and important parts of the subcortical cerebrum.

There are subcortical cerebral nuclei that are located deep in the subcortical cerebrum
Internal capsule (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract
The corpus callosum (part of the subcortical cerebrum) – connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Answer 320

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Basal ganglia (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– major role in motor functions, don’t have UMNs but help motor area to perform proper movements. Also cognition + emotion.

Answer 321

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Thalamus (part of the subcortical cerebrum)– Sensory functions, becuase all senses have pathways that travel to the thalamus. Also higher functions of the brain such as cognition and emotion.

Answer 322

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Hypothalamus – controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glands in the body.

Answer 323

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Glutamate – most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Reticular activating system (required for consciousness – midbrain structures) has diffuse projections of glutamate to the cerebral cortex. (GLU is exciting)

Glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal.

Answer 324

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GABA (brain neurotransmitter) and Glycine (spinal cord) – most common inhibitory NTs [TWO other G’s are inhibitory]

Answer 325

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Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) – nuclei (Basilis and septal nuclei) in the frontal lobe [frontal lobe = start so A] that releases it to cerebral cortex, released for LMNs, and the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 326

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Histamine (neurotransmitter) – from hypothalamus sends to the cerebral cortex

Answer 327

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NorePinephrine – area in the Pons called teh locus coeruleus that releases it to the cerebral cortex. Also, ANS, but less so than Ach.

Answer 328

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Serotonin – released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. The raphe nuclei also sends serotonin to other parts of the nervous system. [Like Sex = messy. From everywhere down low (brain stem)]

Answer 329

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Dopamine – VTA and substantia nigra

Answer 330

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Lesion studies and experimental ablation is deliberately making brain lesions in order to observe changes on animal’s behavior. Not done with humans!

Tissue removal: surgical removal, surgical aspiration (sucking out brain tissue), or nerve cuts.

Answer 331

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Radiofrequency lesions – used to destroy tissue on surface of the brain and deep inside the brain. A wire is inserted into the brain to determine the area. Then pass a high frequency current which heats up and destroys tissue. It can vary current to change size, but destroys cells and axons.

Answer 332

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Neurochemical lesions – excitotoxic lesions, cause influx of calcium that it kills the neuron and excites it to death.

One example is kainic acid. Destroys cell bodies but doesn’t influence axons by passing by.
Also oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model parkinson’s disease.

Answer 333

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Cortical cooling (Cryogenic blockade) - involves cooling down neurons until they stop friing.

Cryloop – surgically implanted between skull and brain. Most important part is it’s temporary and reversible, unlike other brain studying techniques.

Answer 334

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There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain structure is

CAT scans (CT scan)
MRI

Answer 335

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here are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain function is

EEG (electroencephalogram) external, can’t tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cogntive tasks.
MEG (Megnetoencephalogram)

(aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device) – better resolution than an EEG, but more rare because it requires a large machine and special room to shield it.

Answer 336

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There are modern ways to study the brain. The modern ways or machines that are used to study the brain function AND structure is

fMRI – same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active
PET scans – can’t give us the detail of the structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of the brain are more active at given point in time.

Answer 337

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Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error of metabolism that results in decreased metabolism of the amino acid phenylalanine.[3] Untreated, PKU can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders.[1] It may also result in a musty smell and lighter skin.[1] A baby born to a mother who has poorly treated PKU may have heart problems, a small head, and low birth weight.[1]

Answer 338

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Between-subjects (or between-groups) study design: different people test each condition, so that each person is only exposed to a single user interface.

Answer 339

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Within-subjects (or repeated-measures) study design: the same person tests all the conditions (i.e., all the user interfaces).

Answer 340

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Temperament – broader than personality. It’s their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages.

Answer 341

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Heredity – passing traits from parents/ancestors to offspring through genes.

Traits: distinguishing qualities and characteristics that compus us. Our attributes. Ex. Our temperament or our eye color.

Answer 342

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Personality, unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be constant over a person’s lifetime.

Is our personality hard-wired and persistent as we age? What about our gender identity? or intelligence?

Answer 343

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Twin studies and adoption studies are important in behavioral, social, and health sciences.

Twin studies and adoption studies are good because they allow us to tease apart nature (what we inherit from our parents, DNA) and nurture (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live)

Answer 344

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Classical twin study – compare monozygotic + dizygotic raised in the same household.
Monozygotic (edentical) vs. dizygotic twins (fraternal)
- Monozygotic – egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of the genes
- Dizygotic – develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings
- Share same environment in womb, and also share the same parents, so both can be said to share 100% environment
- Regular sibling don’t share 100%, similar, but can vary depending on parenting/age.

Answer 345

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Twin studies and adoption studies allow us to tease apart nature (what we inherit from our parents’ DNA) and nurture (our environments – our surroundings, peers, and where we live)

For example, what causes schizophrenia?
- Nature – genetic component
- Nurture – environmental component
- Monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins – can hold environment constant.
- If schizophrenia was caused by genes, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins
- But if environmental, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn’t matter if they were identical vs fraternal.

Answer 346

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Problems with twin studies: identical twins are treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. This would mean that monozygotic twins share even “more” of the same environement than fraternal twins.

Answer 347

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Adoption studies – adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. If no relation between individual and biological parents, but there is relation between individual and adoptive parents, then we can assume environment was a factor. If opposite, then genetic factor.

Problems: incomplete info about biological families. Also adoption isn’t random, adoptive family sometimes matched to biological family.

Identical twins adopted by different family – genetically similar, different environments. But families who adopt are usually similar.

Answer 348

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Heritability: variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes.

percentage of variation of traits due to genes.
Heritability estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals

Answer 349

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Assume we say heritability of intelligence is 50%. NOT saying that intelligence is 50% genetic, saying the difference in intelligence is 50% attributable by genes.

For example, control boys environment 100%, but IQ is not the same. Difference couldn’t be attributed to environment, so we’d say their IQ differences are heritable because their environement was 100% the same. So h^2 = 99%. Close to 100%.
Alternatively you can say 4 identical quadruplets (genetically identical), but completely different environments. Since variability can’t be due to genes, it must be environmentally caused so h^2 is 0%. h^2 = heritability

Answer 350

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Gener Environment Interaction

Nature vs. Nurture.
Gene-Environment Interaction: Gene + environments effect our behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. [Explains nature through nurture]
- For example, an attractive baby vs. a hideous baby. As a result, the attractive baby recieves more attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose them for depression, that are triggered/activated by environement (stressors). Beautiful baby’s genes are not activated because it has reduced transmitters, while the ugly baby’s genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also environment plays a role.

Answer 351

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Another example of gene environment interaction is phenylketonuria (PKU). Phenylketonuria is caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenlylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). But becuase the enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn’t get converted into tyrosine. A genetic condition that causes a build up of phenyl alanine which then causes brain problems. (1 in 15k babies effected, but most babies are unaffected).

During infant screening, placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems.

Answer 352

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Molecular Genetics – a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and fucntin of genes. As we study gene and environemtns interaction we are getting to understand specific gene that is regulating our behavior. We are looking at specific parts of DNA.

Answer 353

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Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA, and gave rise to the Central Dogma of genetic. DNA codes for RNA, which code for 1 of 20 amino acids, and eventually become the building blocks of proteins, which affects our behavior.

Answer 354

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Greatest achievements in clarifying the modulatory factors we have had mapped our entire genome - gene mapping of all genes on the 46 chromosomes. Because of genome now we can look at populations which share traits and not have to rely on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. Now, we can look at population of shared traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes.

Answer 355

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Called epigenetics – changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/ DNA sequence. Ex. Addition of methyl groups to the gene, which make it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate a gene. [Methylation inhibits activation of certain genes.]. Epigenetics can override our behavior.

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One epigenetic change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed.

Answer 356

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits.

Function of Behavior – to keep homeostasis - a maintained of a constant interanl condition. Behavior is the coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their environment. Functioning in the realm of adaptation to help maintain our homeostasis.

Answer 357

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits.

Ethology focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these overt behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means observable).
- I believe Ethology can be divided into innate behavior, learned behaviour, and complex behaviours.

Answer 358

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is innate behavioruoural traits.

Innate behavioural traits – genetically programmed behaviour. Present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Innate behavioural traits have the following characteristics:
- Inherited – innate behaviours are encoded by DNA
- Intrinsic – present even if you’re raised in isolation. Ex. pooping, peeing, etc.
- Stereotypic – performed the same way each time
- Inflexible – not modifiable by experience.
- Consummate – fully developed right away, at first perfromance. Not influenced by experience.
  - Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection, etc (just like all other physical traits)
  - Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Throught of as programmed.

Answer 359

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under under Ethology is innate behavioruoural traits. Even further, there are three main types of innate behaviour:

Reflexes – sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (ex. Knee-jerk response).
Orientation Behaviors – regualting specially in our environments
- Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk – your body would change speed/kinesis).
- Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis - movement towards/away from a stimulus respectively. E. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis)
Fixed-action pattern (FAP) – sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sixed movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike is initiated – can’t be changed/altered at all.

Answer 360

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is Learned Behaviooural Traits – persistent changes in behavior that result from ur experiences. Learned Behavioral Traits have these following characteristics:

Non-inherited –acquired only through observation/experience
Extrinsic – absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills
Permutable – pattern/sequence that is changeable
Adaptable – capable of being modifid in response to changing conditions
Progressive – subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

Answer 361

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There is adaptive value to behavioral traits. One of the three behaviours under Ethology is complex behavior – combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and the environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned.

Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more fficient in their ability to fly.

Genes/environments forms behavior and they also contribute to the adaptive role of these behaviors!

Covert behavior - Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable.

Answer 362

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Positive Feedback – process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product. Ex. Domino or chain effect

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Negative feedback– rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Ex. in our body!

Negative feedback is put into place to inhibit production of product

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Positive, increase production of product.
Negative, works to decrease product.

Answer 365

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Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?

Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is the Evolutionary Approach – role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not learned and just instinct.

Ex. Think about baby. The baby cries, sleeps, and eats. Basic instinct that all humans have

Answer 366

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Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?

Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is Drive Reduction Theory / Drive Theory – focuses on drives vs needs.

Need is the lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state.
That drive is the aroused state. Fulfulling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. Typically basic, essential, and physiological
Ex. You are at the gym and the need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive:thirst. Doing pushups is a means to fulfull drive for water.

Answer 367

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Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?

Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is Optimum Arousal Theory – people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high – a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks.

Answer 368

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Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?

Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is Cognitive – (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior. Ex. Light bulb going off in one’s head.

Answer 369

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Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?

Motivation has 5 schools of thought/approaches. One of these approaches is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – we want to satisfy needs in a particular order. Why we use a pyramid.

In reality, all approaches/schools of thought of motivation are related and help us learn motivation a bit better.

Answer 370

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Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottomàtop order.

Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs.
- Acronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit
- Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer

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One of the five Need categories in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 1.Physiological. 1.Physiological – food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. Basic need

Answer 372

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One of the five Need categories in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 2. Safety. 2.Safety – safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfulled after physiological needs are met. Basic Need

Safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom from threats.

Answer 373

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One of the five Need categories in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 3. Love. 3.Love – need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. Social needs/Belonging

Answer 374

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One of the five Need categories in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 4. Self-esteem. 4. Self-esteem – feel confident and a sense of achievement, recognition, and competence of skill. Respect

Answer 375

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One of the five Need categories in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: 5. Self-actualization. 5. Self-actualization – one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. Maximum Potential

One can want to be an ideal parent, or ideal athlete or ideal artist

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Incentive Theory – Reward, intangible or tangible is presented after the occurrence of an action w/intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. Incentive theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives

Ex. doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). Or intangible - job satisfaction.
Ex. Incentive for football team is winning a game and getting recognition.

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Incentive Theory Topic

Studies have shown that if a reward is given immediately, the chance of the action happening again is higher.
If the person is not rewarded for the action, the action is less likely to be done again.
Positive Reinforcement is done through continous positive stimulation
Removal of a punishment would be negative reinforcement, not what incentive theory is focused on.
Skinner, the most distinguished incentive theory psychologist, said a person is more likely to do an action that’s positively recieved, and less likely to do an action that is negatively recieved

Answer 378

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Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs

There are many factors that regulate our intake of food, sex, and drugs
Furthermore, these factors can be grouped into 2 categories: biological and socio-culture

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Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs

Food
- Biological: Hypothalamus sends positive signal to the stomach, and when the stomach is full, leptin tells us we are full. Another one is insulin. The brain can detect the level of insulin to see the amount of sugar and fat store in the blood. Matabolism rate. Genetic predspostion to our weight, influenced by parents
- Socio-culturally: Eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability

Answer 380

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Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs

Sex – Investigated by MAster & Johnson.
- Biological: Sexual response cycle. The first part of the cycle is the excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, BP, etc. Second is plateau. Then orgasm. 4th is resolution. They noticed activity was related to testosterone for women and men. Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, found by looking at homosexuality.
- Socio-culturally: age, cultural, stimulus, emotions, and desires to procreate or not.

Answer 381

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Biological and Sociocultural Factors – Food, Sex, and Drugs

Drugs
- Biological: family history/genetic predisposition, withdrawal and cravings, biochemical factors, dopamine – affects our limboc system and leads to feeling of euphoria
- Socio-culturally: curiosity, rebel, poor control, cope with stress, low self-esteem, relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in area of higher poverty.

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Attitude – a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, and objects. (We think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having a certain attitude towards a certain topic.

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There are three components to attitude – affective (emotional), behavioural (how we act or behave towards object/subject), cognitive component (form thoughts/beliefs, and our knowledge)

Called the ABC model of attitude

Answer 384

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Identify the Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive compenents of these attitudes!

“I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week.” – ‘I love yoga’ is emotional,’ I believe it helps me relax’ is cognitive, and behavioural is ‘I will go to class each week’
“I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel.” Affective – ‘I am frightful’, behavioural is ‘I will be on the carousel’, and cognitive is ‘I believe they are stupid’

Answer 385

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Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior.

1. Theory of Planned Behavior
  * We consider the implications of our intentions before we behave.
  * Intesions are based on 3 things – our attitudes toward a certain behavior (ex. I like studying), subjective norms (what we think others think about our behavior), and percieved behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior)

Answer 386

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Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior.

1. Attitude to Behavior Process Model
  * An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object)
  * Then attitude + outside knowledge together determines behavior
  * Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, becuase many of his relatives have diseases, so when he is at home, he does not eat chips/soda/candy.

Answer 387

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Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior.

1. Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)
  * Behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, prototypes/models – a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modeling.

Answer 388

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Attitudes certainly influence our behavior, and there are four theories that answer the question on how our attitudes influence behavior.

1. Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion
  * More cognitive approach – focuses on the why/how of persuasion.
  * There are two ways information is processed: central (depends on the quality of arguments of the persuader), and peripheral (superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/satus of persuader).
People are more like to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (principle of aggregation), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self reflection.
The principle of aggregation states that the sum of a set of multiple measurements is a more stable and representative estimator than any single measurement. This greater representation occurs because there is inevitably some error associated with measurement. By combining numerous exemplars, such errors of measurement are averaged out, leaving a clearer view of underlying relationships. The usefulness of this principle is illustrated in 12 major areas of developmental research in which the issue of negligible correlations figures prominently.

Answer 389

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YES, it is possible for our behaviors to influence our attitudes?

Answer 390

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Strong social attitudes can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.

Answer 391

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There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude.

1. Foot In The Door Phenomenon
  * We have a tendency to agree on small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions.
  * Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open.

Answer 392

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There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude.

Role-playing
- Everyone plays roles in life. Picture yourself in a new role. First few day are a bit fake – we’re trying to follow social quota in that role. Trying to sound professional. But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you.
- Changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role.
- Ex. Zimbardo’s prison experiment

Answer 393

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There are two primary or major ways behavior influences attitude. However, there are other major ways behavior influences your attitude.

Also public declarations (more likely to follow through if you’ve told everyone), and justification of effort (people do something they don’t want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard)

Answer 394

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Cognitive Dissonance is the discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, beliefs, values, and emotional reactions).

These conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. These conflicting ideas can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviours. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ CONTRADICTIONS

Answer 395

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There are 4 things we do to reduce our cognitive discomfort or cognitive dissonance:

1. Modify our cognitions – ex. smoker might ay I really don’t smoke that much.
1. Trivialize – make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer.
1. Add – adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much that it doean’t matter
1. Deny – denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked.

People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, words. As soon as our cognitions, attitudes and behaviours don’t align, we have cognitive dissonance.

Answer 396

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Situational Approach to Behavior: we are placed in new situations everyday. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology.

Social Psychology – a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. It focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/ stable personality traits.
- Focuses on interactions between individual and their environment.
- One situation is not predictive of how someone will act in another situation. Depending on situation the behavior might change.

Answer 397

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Situational Approach

People behave differently depending on their situation – _________ instead of internal.
- As human we judge person on just one instance of behavior (internal).
Hard to predict behavior based off 1 situation. Have to acknowledge we sometimes behave differently. CANT JUDGE A BOOK BY ITS COVER

Answer 398

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Situational Approach

Attribution is the process of inferring causes of events/behaviors.

3 main parts of external attribution: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
- Consistency (does person usually behave this way),
- Distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations), and
- Consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?).
  - If person behaves different in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior.
If person is consistent in all situations, then maybe not external/environment, and more internal. Their behavior is not dependent on situation.
- Ex. Situation matters. Your friend behaves differently to snakes at a zoo (where snakes are caged) than to a snake in her living room (where snake might be a danger).
- If we see someone in more circumstances, we find out more about them as a person.

Answer 399

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Sigmund Freud was a neurologist and went to study hypnosis, but this turned him to medical psychopathology. Psychiatry/psychology as we knew it was unknown before his work.

Answer 400

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Psychoanalytic Theory says peronality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly in childhood)

Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and unconscious desires
- 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior: libido (motivation for survival. growth, pleasure, etc.) and death instinct (drives aggresive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others.

Answer 401

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Psychoanalytic Theory

Individual influences on behavior: projection (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), reaction formation (defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), regression (defence mechnism where one regresses to the position of child in problematic situations), sublimation (defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).

Answer 402

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Psychoanalytic Theory

Central to Freud’s Theory is libido. Libido is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind.
- When this energy is stuck/fixated at various tages of psychosexual development, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects.
- Fixation at a partcular stage is what predicts adult personality.
  - Ex. Someone fixated at the oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.

Answer 403

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Freud said there were 3 parts of the mind: These three parts are the id, ego, and superego (ACRONYM: Immature Entertainer Sydney). They exist in either the unconscious or conscious mind.

Conscious mind: top of iceberg is the conscious part of mind (small, tip of the iceberg), These are the mental functions you are aware of.
Unconscious mind is the bottom part of the iceberg is the larger part of the mind (most of the mind is unconscious just like most of an iceberg is beneath water). Consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed.
- Id is at the bottom of the iceberg; it’s part of the unconscious mind. It develps after birth and demands immediate gratification.
- Ego – part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks long-term gratification.
- Superego – develps around age 4, and it’s our moral conscience. Also part of the conscious and unconscious mind.

Answer 404

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Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified – when overgratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It’s a conflict between these 3 mental structures – ego, id, and superego. They’re all competing for demand, so in conflict.

Id is on one shoulder and it’s not getting immediate gratification, then we have superego on other shoulder, preaching to id about what’s moral, and ego is in middle.
Id wants gratification, and is going back and forth with superego, so ego here is trying to gratify the id but it also has to take into account what the superego is saying. It’s moral oversight.
The ego is part of the conscious and unconscious mind, so it acts as mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral demands of the superego.

Answer 405

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Ex. a Freudian slip is example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don’t give me any bills – meant any pills.

• Freud’s stages of psychosocial development is a process all individuals go through and is a part of personality development. Especially problematic when there’s a problem with development at a particular psychosocial stage.

Answer 406

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The Humanistic Theory (developed by Carl Rogers) focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people also have free will. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.

Answer 407

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The primary difference between Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and Roger’s Humanistic Theory was that Freud’s Theory was deterministic – behaviour was determined by unconscious desires.

Answer 408

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Humanistic Theory focuses on the conscious, and says people are inherently good, and we are self-motivated to improve (so we can reach self-actualization).

Answer 409

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Even though Carl Rogers Developed the Humanistic Theory, the first theorist of this theory was Maslow, who formed the hierarchy of needs. He stated that we must fulfill the physiological needs of the pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self-esttem, and finally self-actualization.

Self-actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ver reach it.

Answer 410

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Carl Rogers says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life. Self- actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a growth-promoting process. In order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, 2 conditions need to be met. The first is that growth is nurtured by when an individual is genuine, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second growth is nurtured through acceptance from others – allows us to live up to our ideal selves.

In the Humanistic Theory, the central feature of our personality is self-concept, achieved when we bring genuiness and acceptance together to achieve a growth-promoting climate.
When there’s a discrepency between conscious values and unconscoius true values leads to tension, must be resolved.
Genuine + acceptance = self-concept
Importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to be fulfilled.

Answer 411

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There is a Biological Theory on Personality.

There are many variations to this theory, some relate to the brain and some relate to behaviour instead of traits
- For example, evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have a different mating strategy that influence the cost of passing on genes. Males seek to have many mates, and females want to be more selective due to the cost pf pregnancy.

Answer 412

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The biological theory suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.
Hans Eysnck proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation – introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less. Jeffrey Alan Gray proposed personality is governed by 3 brain systems, such as the fight or flight system. C. Robert Cloninger linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity.

Answer 413

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In the Biological Theory For Personality, researchers always try to look to identical twins, because they are used to tease out environment vs genetic characteristics – same genetic makeup.

Results show even if twins reared separately, still had similar personalities.
Social Potency trait – the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately.
Traditionalism – tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.
Weaker genetic traits – achievement, closeness
Specific genes that relate to personality, people with longer dopamine-4-receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers
But of course, just because you have a gene doesn’t mean you’ll express it – depends on the environement.
Temperament – innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout your life.

The most important takeaway on the Biological Theory of Personality is our inherited gene to some degree leads to our traits, which leads to our behaviour/personality.

Answer 414

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The behaviourist theory says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person’s environement – it’s deterministic, in that people begin as blank slates and the enviornment completely determines their behaviour/personalities.

Answer 415

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The Behaviourist Theory on Personality focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional behaviours.

The Psychoanalytic Theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses on mental behaviour).

Answer 416

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The Behaviourist Theory on Personality

1. Skinner – strict behaviourist, associated with the conceptof operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively
1. Pavlov – associated with classical conditioning, ex. Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in the presence of food.
  * People have consistent behaviour patterns becuase we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that’s why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

Answer 417

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The Cognitive Theory, a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like the psychoanalyitc. Because cognitive theory treats thinking as a behaviour, and has a lot in common with behaviour theory (Albert Bandura comb)

Answer 418

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Trait Theory can be used to explain personality. Trait Theory states a personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behaviour. Trait Theory is a striaghtforward way to describe personality – puts it in patterns of behaviour.

Answer 419

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