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Keyword definitions Flashcards

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1
Q

What are AMINO ACIDS?

A

The monomers that make up proteins.

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2
Q

Describe the structure of AMINO ACIDS.

A

Has a central carbon atom that is bonded to a carboxylic acid group, an amino group, a hydrogen atom and an R group.

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3
Q

What is CONDENSATION?

A

A chemical process that joins monomers together.

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4
Q

What is usually lost in CONDENSATION?

A

A simple molecule (usually water)

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5
Q

Name 2 common products of CONDENSATION.

A

Biological polymers like polysaccharides and polypeptides.

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6
Q

What is a COVALENT BOND?

A

Bonding where 2 atoms share a pair of electrons

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7
Q

What is HYDROLYSIS?

A

Chemical process that breaks down larger molecules.

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8
Q

What is added in HYDROLYSIS?

A

Molecules broken by the addition of water.

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9
Q

What is a MONOMER?

A

A single smaller molecule that can form larger molecules.

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10
Q

What is a MONOSACCHARIDE, and what can they form?

A

A single sugar that can form carbohydrate polymers and dimers.

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11
Q

Give 3 examples of MONOSACCHARIDES.

A

Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.

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12
Q

What is a NUCLEOTIDE made of?

A

A compound with an organic base and ribose sugar, linked to a phosphate group.

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13
Q

What are NUCLEOTIDES monomers of?

A

Is the monomer of nucleigc acids like DNA.

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14
Q

What are ORGANIC MOLECULES, and where can they be found?

A

Molecules containing carbon, found in living things.

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15
Q

Give 4 examples of ORGANIC MOLECULES.

A

Examples: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

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16
Q

What is ALPHA GLUCOSE?

A

An isomer of glucose that can form starch or glycogen.

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17
Q

What is BETA GLUCOSE?

A

An isomer of glucose that can form cellulose.

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18
Q

What is CELLULOSE, and what is it made of?

A

A polysaccharide made of beta-glucose.

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19
Q

Where can CELLULOSE be found?

A

Can be found in plant cell walls.

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20
Q

What bonds is CELLULOSE made up of?

A

Contains B1-4 glycosidic bonds.

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21
Q

What monomer males up DISACCHARIDES? (simple)

A

Made of 2 monosaccharide units.

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22
Q

How do DISACCHARIDES form?

A

Formed by condensation.

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23
Q

What bonds make DISACCHARIDES?

A

Made of glycosidic bonds.

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24
Q

What is GLUCOSE, giving its chemical formula?

A

C6H12O6, a single sugar.

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25
Q

What are 2 uses of GLUCOSE?

A

Used in respiration, and the production of other molecules.

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26
Q

What is GLYCOGEN, stating one property of.

A

A highly branched polysaccharide.

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27
Q

What is GLYCOGEN made of?

A

Made of alpha-glucose.

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28
Q

Where is GLYCOGEN found?

A

Found in animal cells.

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29
Q

What bonds does GLYCOGEN contain?

A

Made from a1-4 and a1-6 glycosidic bonds.

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30
Q

What is a GLYCOSIDIC BOND?

A

Bond between sugar molecules.

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31
Q

Where are GLYCOSIDIC BONDS found?

A

Found in disaccharides and polysaccharides.

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32
Q

What is a HEXOSE SUGAR?

A

Sugars made of 6 carbons.

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33
Q

Do HEXOSE SUGARS have a set shape?

A

Does not need to be hexagonal.

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34
Q

What is a HYDROGEN BOND?

A

Chemical bond between positive hydrogen atoms and negatively charged atoms on adjacent molecules.

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35
Q

What do HYDROGEN BONDS usually form between?

A

Commonly between positive hydrogen and negative oxygen.

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36
Q

What is an ISOMER?

A

Compounds with the same formulae but different structures, giving them different properties.

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37
Q

What is a MONOSACCHARIDE?

A

A single sugar.

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38
Q

Give 3 examples of MONOSACCHARIDES.

A

Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.

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39
Q

What is a NON-REDUCING SUGAR?

A

A sugar that cannot be used as a reducing agent.

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40
Q

Give an example of a NON-REDUCING SUGAR.

A

Example: sucrose.

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41
Q

What is a POLYSACCHARIDE?

A

Polymer made from many sugar units.

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42
Q

How do POLYSACCHARIDES form?

A

Formed by condensation.

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42
Q

How are monomers joined in POLYSACCHARIDES?

A

Monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds.

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43
Q

What are REDUCING SUGARS?

A

A sugar that can be used as a reducing agent (can donate electrons).

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44
Q

Give 3 examples of REDUCING SUGARS.

A

Examples: all monosaccharides, maltose and lactose.

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45
Q

What is STARCH?

A

A polysaccharide made of alpha glucose.

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46
Q

Where is STARCH found?

A

Found in plant cells.

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47
Q

What is STARCH made of? (2, plus bonds)

A

Made of amylose (a1-4 glycosidic bonds) and amylopectin (a1-4 and a1-6 glycosidic bonds).

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48
Q

What is GLYCEROL made of?

A

3 carbon chain with 3 hydroxyl groups.

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49
Q

What does GLYCEROL combine with to form triglycerides?

A

3 fatty acid chains.

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50
Q

What does GLYCEROL form when combined with 3 fatty acid chains?

A

1 triglyceride.

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51
Q

Define HYDROPHILIC.

A

Section of molecule that is attracted to water.

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52
Q

Define HYDROPHOBIC.

A

Section of molecule that repels water.

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53
Q

What are LIPIDS?

A

A class of organic compounds.

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54
Q

What are the derivitives of LIPIDS?

A

Fatty acids.

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55
Q

When are LIPIDS insoluble?

A

In water.

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56
Q

When are LIPIDS soluble?

A

In organic solvents.

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57
Q

Give 4 examples of LIPIDS (2 important).

A

Examples: triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes and steroids.

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58
Q

Define MONO-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID.

A

Fatty acid with a carbon chain that contains a single double bond between carbon atoms.

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59
Q

How many fatty acid molecules are there in PHOSPHOLIPIDS? (and how does this compare to triglycerides)

A
  1. triglycerides have 3.
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60
Q

What replaces the third fatty acid molecule in PHOSPHOLIPIDS?

A

A phosphate group (molecule).

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61
Q

When are PHOSPHOLIPIDS important?

A

Structure and function of plasma membranes.

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62
Q

Define POLY-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID.

A

Fatty acid molecule with mnay double bonds between carbon atoms.

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63
Q

Define SATURATED FATTY ACID.

A

A fatty acid molecule with no double bonds between the carbon atoms.

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64
Q

What is a TRIGLYCERIDE?

A

Individual lipid molecule.

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65
Q

What are TRIGLYCERIDES made of?

A

A glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules.

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66
Q

What bonds do TRIGLYCERIDES contain?

A

Ester bonds.

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67
Q

What is BENEDICT’S REAGENT?

A

Blue solution used in food tests.

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68
Q

What is BENEDICT’S REAGENT used to test for?

A

Both reducing and non-reducing sugars.

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69
Q

What is the BIRUET TEST?

A

Boichemical reaction to detect proteins.

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70
Q

What is a positive result for the BIRUET TEST?

A

Solution turns purple.

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71
Q

What is the EMULSION TEST for?

A

Test for lipids?

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72
Q

How do you carry out the EMULSION TEST?

A

Mix with ethanol (emulsify) THEN add water.

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73
Q

What is a positive result for the EMULSION TEST?

A

White cloudy emulsion (NOT precipitate) forms.

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74
Q

When is a NON-REDUCING SUGARS TEST conducted?

A

Following negaitive result from reducing sugars test.

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75
Q

How do you conduct a NON-REDUCING SUGARS TEST?

A

Heat with HCl (to hydrolyse into monosaccharides), then heat with Benedict’s solution.

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76
Q

What is a positive result for the NON-REDUCING SUGARS TEST?

A

Yellow to brick red precipitate forms.

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77
Q

How do you conduct a REDUCING SUGARS TEST?

A

Heat with Benedict’s solution.

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78
Q

What is a positive result in a REDUCING SUGARS TEST?

A

Yellow to brick red precipitate forms.

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79
Q

What reagent is used a REDUCING SUGARS or NON-REDUCING SUGARS TEST?

A

Benedict’s reagent.

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80
Q

What are AMINE GROUPS part of the structure of?

A

Amino acids.

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81
Q

What is an AMINE GROUPS made up of?

A

-NH2

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82
Q

What are CABOXYL GROUPS part of the structure of?

A

Amino acids.

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83
Q

What are CARBOXYL GROUPS made up of?

A

-COOH

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84
Q

What is a DISULFIDE BRIDGE?

A

Covalent bond formed between sulfur atoms.

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85
Q

Where are DISULFIDE BRIDGES found?

A

In R groups of amino acids.

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86
Q

What re IONIC BONDS between?

A

Bond between positive ion and negative ion.

87
Q

What is a PEPTIDE BOND?

A

Bond formed between 2 amino acids.

88
Q

What is a POLYPEPTIDE?

A

Many amino acids joined together.

89
Q

What are POLYPEPTIDES joined by?

A

Peptide bonds.

90
Q

What is PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE?

A

Sequence of amino acids that make up polypeptide chains.

91
Q

What is a PROTEIN?

A

Polymer of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

92
Q

What is QUATERNARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE?

A

Number of polypeptide chains linked together, sometimes with non-protein groups to form a protein.

93
Q

What is an R GROUP?

A

Group in amino acids that determines the bonding that it can do.

94
Q

How many AMINO ACIDS are there?

A

20.

95
Q

What is SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE?

A

The way the polypeptide chain is initially folded.

96
Q

What is TERIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE?

A

The entire folding of a polypeptide into a protein.

97
Q

What determines TERTIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE?

A

The amino acids that make up the chain.

98
Q

Define ACTIVATION ENERGY.

A

Minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.

99
Q

What is the ACTIVE SITE of an enzyme?

A

The region where the substrate binds to catalyse a reaction.

100
Q

What is the ACTIVE SITE made up of?

A

Amino acids (you fool its a protein)

101
Q

What does a COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR do to prevent enzymes functioning?

A

Binds to the active site to prevent substrates from binding.

102
Q

How can the effects of COMPETITIVE INHIBITORS be negated?

A

Increasing the amount of substrate allows the rate of reaction to increase as they out-compete the inhobitor for the enzymes.

103
Q

Define COMPLIMENTARY, in terms of enzymes.

A

Describes the relationship between the acive site and substrate, the way that the shapes fit together.

104
Q

What is the function of an ENZYME?

A

Acts a a biological catalyst.

105
Q

What type of molecules are ENZYMES?

A

Ensymes are proteins with a tertiary structure.

106
Q

Define CATALYST.

A

Molecule that will lower the activation energy of a reaction without being used up in the process.

107
Q

What is an ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMPLEX?

A

The intermediate formed when a substrate interacts with the active site of an enzyme.

108
Q

What is the INDUCED FIT MODEL?

A

A model to describe the interaction between enzymes and substrates.

109
Q

Describe how the INDUCED FIT MODEL explains enzyme function.

A

As the substrate binds to the active site, the active site changes shape to form the enzyme-substrate complex.

110
Q

What is an INHIBITOR?

A

A substance which reduces the activity of an enzyme.

111
Q

Define KINETIC ENERGY.

A

The energy that particles have when in motion.

112
Q

What is the LOCK AND KEY MODEL?

A

An analogy for the function of enzymes.

113
Q

Describe how the LOCK AND KEY MODEL shows enzyme function.

A

Only the correctly shaped substrate key will fit into the the active site of the enzyme (lock).

114
Q

Define METABOLISM.

A

All chemical reactions that take place in a living organism.

115
Q

How does a NON-COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR prevent enzymes from functioning?

A

Substance binds at the allosteric site of an enzyme, putting pressure on its structure and causing the shape of the active site to change.

116
Q

What is the ALLOSTERIC SITE of an enzyme?

A

Not the active site, where non-competitive inhibitors bind to.

117
Q

What is pH used to describe?

A

Expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

118
Q

What type of scale is the pH SCALE?

A

Logarithmic scale (each step goes up or down in a power of 10)

119
Q

What are the min/max values of the pH SCALE, and what value is neutral?

A

1-14, 7 is neutral. Low numbers are acidic, higher numbers are alkaline.

120
Q

What is the RATE OF REACTION used to describe?

A

The speed at which chemical reaction takes place.

121
Q

How can the RATE OF REACTION be calculated?

A

The decrease in reactant/increase in product didvided by time.

122
Q

Define SPECIFIC in terms of enzymes.

A

Describes how the enzymes catalyse only one reaction.

123
Q

What is a SUBSTRATE?

A

A substance that is used by another substance or process. Will fit into a complimentary active site on an enzyme.

124
Q

Define DELTA POSITIVE/NEGATIVE in terms of the charge of water.

A

A very slight positive/negative charge on an atom.

125
Q

What is a POLAR MOLECULE?

A

Molecules that have an uneven distribution of charge.

126
Q

Define COHESION within molecules.

A

Attraction between the same type of molecules.

127
Q

Define ADHESION within molecules.

A

The tendency water molecules have to stick to surfaces or walls of tubes (like xylem)

128
Q

Define SHC.

A

The amount of energy needed to raise 1kg of a substance by 1degree C

129
Q

Define SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT.

A

The amount of energy needed for a substance to change state.

130
Q

What is a CATABOLIC reaction?

A

A reaction that breaks down substrates.

131
Q

What is an ANABOLIC reaction?

A

A reaction that joins substrates together.

132
Q

What is the SATURATION POINT?

A

Where all enzyme active sites are filled.

133
Q

Define DENATURED (enzymes)

A

When the tertiary structure of the enzyme is permanently changed.

134
Q

What is ADP?

A

A nucleotide that can form ATP.

135
Q

What does ADP join with to form ATP?

A

A phosphate group.

136
Q

What reaction joins ADP and the phosphates?

A

Condensation reactions.

137
Q

What are ADP reactions catalysed by?

A

ATP synthesase.

138
Q

What does ADP stand for?

A

Adenosine diphosphate.

139
Q

What does ATP stand for?

A

Adenosine triphosphate.

140
Q

Where is ATP found? (broad)

A

All living organisms.

141
Q

When is ATP produced?

A

ATP is produced in respiration.

142
Q

What process is ATP important in?

A

The transfer of energy.

143
Q

Define COMPLIMENTARY BASE PAIRING.

A

Sepcific rules for how bases match up.

144
Q

What are the different pairs in COMPLIMENTARY BASE PAIRING?

A

C-G, A-T/U

145
Q

As well as thymine, what does adenine also pair with in COMPLIMENTARY BASE PAIRING?

A

Uracil (U)

146
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid.

147
Q

What is the function of DNA?

A

To store genetic information.

148
Q

Describe directons of DNA.

A

The two strands are antiparallel.

149
Q

How many strands foes DNA have?

A

2

150
Q

What makes up the backbone of DNA?

A

Deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups.

151
Q

What shape is DNA?

A

Double helix.

152
Q

How are the bases bonded in DNA?

A

Hydrogen bonds.

153
Q

What type of sugar is found in DNA?

A

Deoxyribose sugar.

154
Q

What are the organic bases in DNA?

A

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine.

155
Q

What type of molecule is DNA HELICASE?

A

Enzyme.

156
Q

What is the function of DNA HELICASE?

A

Break the H-bonds between DNA bases and unwind the chain.

157
Q

What type of molecule is DNA POLYMERASE?

A

Enzyme.

158
Q

What is the function of DNA POLYMERASE?

A

Join the sugar phosphate backbones of new DNA strands.

159
Q

What bonds do DNA POLYMERASE form?

A

Phosphodiester bonds.

160
Q

What is DNA REPLICATION?

A

The process where DNA unwinds, the strand becomes a template for new DNA to form.

161
Q

What is a DOUBLE HELIX?

A

The structure of DNA made of 2 strands of nucleotides.

162
Q

What is a GENE?

A

A section of DNA coding for 1 or more polypeptide?

163
Q

Where are GENES found?

A

On chromosomes.

164
Q

What is the GENOTYPE?

A

All the genetic material found in an organism.

165
Q

What is an ANTICODON?

A

Sequence of 3 nucleotides that is complimentary to a codon on mRNA.

166
Q

Where are ANTICODONS found?

A

On tRNA.

167
Q

What are CODONS?

A

Sequence of 3 nucleotides.

168
Q

What is the function of CODONS?

A

Codes for a single amino acid.

169
Q

What is MITOSIS?

A

A type of nuclear division where daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

170
Q

What is a MUTATION?

A

A change in the genetic material of a cell.

171
Q

What is a NUCLEOTIDE?

A

Monomer of nucleic acids.

172
Q

What are NUCLEOTIDES made up of?

A

Organic base, sugar and phosphate group.

173
Q

What are the 4 ORGANIC BASES?

A

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine.

174
Q

Where are ORGANIC BASES found?

A

In nucleotides.

175
Q

What is a PENTOSE SUGAR?

A

A sugar with 5 carbons.

176
Q

What is the PHENOTYPE?

A

The characteristics of an organism.

177
Q

What affects the PHENOTYPE?

A

The genotype and the environment.

178
Q

What is a PHOSPHODIESTER BOND?

A

A bond between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the pentose sugar of another.

179
Q

What is a POLYNUCLEOTIDE?

A

A polymer of nucleotides.

180
Q

What is RNA?

A

A polynucleotide that has a ribose sugar rather than deoxyribose.

181
Q

What bases does RNA contain?

A

Adenine, gyanine, cytosine, uracil.

182
Q

What can RNA be?

A

mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.

183
Q

What type of molecule is RNA POLYMERASE?

A

An enzyme.

184
Q

What is the function of RNA POLYMERASE?

A

Joins together sugar-phosphate backbone of RNA molecules.

185
Q

What is SEMI CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION?

A

The way DNA makes exact copies of itself, using the existing chain as a template.

186
Q

What is TRANSCRIPTION?

A

Formation of mRNA from DNA that makes a particular gene.

187
Q

What happens during ACTIVE TRANSPORT?

A

Substances are moved against a concentration gradient.

188
Q

What type of process is ACTIVE TRANSPORT?

A

Active transport is an active process, requiring energy in ATP.

189
Q

What is a BILAYER?

A

A membrane made of 2 layers.

190
Q

What are BILAYERS made of?

A

Bilayers are made of phospholipids.

191
Q

What is a CARRIER PROTIEN?

A

Binds and transports large molecules and ions across a phospholipid bilayer.

192
Q

Where are CARRIER PROTEINS found?

A

Spanning a phospholipid bilayer.

193
Q

What is a CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE?

A

A selctively permeable membrane that controls what goes in and out of the cell.

194
Q

What is CHOLESTEROL?

A

A type of lipid.

195
Q

Where is CHOLESTEROL an important component.

A

Cholesterol provides strengh to cell membranes.

196
Q

What is the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL referring to?

A

The structure of the cell-surface membrane.

197
Q

Describe the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL.

A

The phospholipid molecules can move relative to each other (fluid) and the embedded proteins can vary in size, shape and pattern (mosaic).

198
Q

What is a GLYCOLIPID?

A

A carbohydrate covalently bonded to a lipid.

199
Q

State 3 functions of GLYCOLIPIDS in cell membranes.

A

Recognitnion sites (antigens), molecular stability, help cells attach to each other.

200
Q

What is a GLYCOPROTEIN?

A

Carbohydrate chains attached to a protein (extrinsic).

201
Q

State 2 functions of GLYCOPROTEINS in context of cell surface membranes.

A

Recognition sites (antigens), help cells attach to each other.

202
Q

Define PARTIALLY PERMEABLE.

A

Allows certian molecules through, typically smaller molecules like water and not large molecules like starch.

203
Q

Define PERMEABILITY.

A

How easily a substance can pass through a membrane.

204
Q

What factors contribute to PERMEABILITY?

A

Size, polarity, charge, lipid solubility.

205
Q

What is a PHOSPHOLIPID?

A

A triglyceride where one of the fatty acid chains is replaced by a phosphate molecule.

206
Q

What is a PLASMA MEMBRANE?

A

Membranes consisting of a phospholipid bilayer that surround cells and organelles.

207
Q

What is a PROTEIN CHANNEL?

A

A water filled tube that allows water soluble proteins to pass through membranes.

208
Q

Where are PROTEIN CHANNELS found?

A

Spanning cell membrane bilayers.

209
Q

Define CONCENTRATION.

A

How much of a substance is dissolved in a solute.

210
Q

Define DIFFUSION.

A

The net movement of particles across a membrane down a concentration gradient.

211
Q

Where does DIFFUSION occur?

A

Across membranes.

212
Q

Define SOLUTE.

A

The liquid part of a solution, that the solvent dissolves into.

213
Q

Define CO-TRANSPORT.

A

Transport of 2 moleucles across a membrane in the same direction using the same carrier protein.

214
Q

Define FACILITATED DIFFUSION.

A

Diffusion using channel and carrier proteins to allow large, polar or charged molecules across a membrane.

215
Q
A

Biology (4 decks)

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