Key Words Flashcards
Additional Member System (AMS)
A hybrid electoral system that has two components or elements. The voter makes two choices. Firstly, the voter selects a representative on a simple plurality (FPTP) system then a second vote is apportioned to a party list for a second or ‘additional’ representative.
Affirmative Action
the policy of favoring historically disadvantaged members of a community.
altruism
Concern for the interest and welfare if others based on ration self interest or a belief that humans are social beings with a capacity for social solidarity.
Anarchical society and society of states
Theory that the states of the world can be members of a society despite the anarchical nature of the international system
Anti-permissiveness
A rejection of permissiveness, which is the belief that people should make their own moral choices, suggesting there is no objective right and wrong.
Assimilation
The process by which social minorities adopt the values, customs and beliefs of the majority.
Atomism
The idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (known as also known as egotistical individualism)
Authoritative works
Works written by experts describing how a political system is run, they are not legally binding but are taken as significant guides.
Authority
For Conservatives, this is the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions in the interests of the whole society;authority thus comes from above. From the anarchic perspective authority is the the right of one person or institution to influence the behavior of, and is seen as commanding, controlling and corrupting.
Autocratic State
A state that is ruled by a single person with unlimited power.
autonomy
A form of self government or legislation, a combination of freedom and responsibility in which the individual is not subject to the will of the state or any other person.
Backbenchers
MPs or Lords who do not hold any government office.
Bipatisanship
Attempts within the structure of the US Congress to try and ensure that the tow main parties must work together in order to fulfill Congressional functions.
Bipolarity
International system revolving around two poles
Black Nationalism
A reaction to white oppression originating in the mid-20th century.
Cabinet
The Prime Minister and senior ministers, most of who lead a particular government department.
Campaign Finance
Refers to all funds raised to promote candidates, political parties or policy initiatives and their agendas during an election.
Capitalism
An economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for profit and wealth is privately owned
Change to conserve
The belief that society should adapt to changing circumstances rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion or revolution
Chauvinist Nationalism
A form of nationalism that believes one nation is superior to others, seeing them as a threat to their survival.
Checks and Balances
The division of power between the three branches of government where each branch has a direct ability to prevent action from another branch.
Civic Nationalism
A form of nationalism based on the active participant of its citizens and a shared equal vision of equal citizens
class consciousness
The self-understanding of social class that is a historical phenomenon, created out of a collective struggle
Class dealignment
The process where individuals no longer identify themselves as belonging to a certain class and for political purposes fail to make a class connection with their voting pattern.
Classical liberals
Classical liberalism is a philosophy developed by early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role.
coalition government
A government that is formed of more than one political party. It is normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and office of state, as was the Conservative-Liberal-Democrat coalition from 2010-2015
Codification
A constitution that is written down in one document
collective responsibility
Principle by which ministers must support Cabinet decisions or leave the Executive.
Collectivisation
The abolition of private property and its replacement by collective ownership
Common Law
Laws made up by judges (rather than statute law) when the law in question doesn’t cover a particular issue or is unclear
Common ownership
Ownership of the means of production so that all are able to benefit from the wealth of society and to participate in its running.
Communism
The communal organisation of social existence based on the common ownership of wealth.
Complex Interdependence
Theory that states and their fortunes are inextricably tied together.
Congressional caucuses
These are groups of US legislators who share special interests and meet to pursue common legislative objectives, e.g. black caucus, women’s caucus and Hispanic caucus.
Confidence and supply
The rights to remove the government and to grant or withhold funding. Also used to describe a type of informal coalition agreement where the minority partner agrees to provide these things in exchange for policy concessions.
conservative justice
A justice with a strong belief in ‘stare decisis’ with s more narrow view of the US constitution, more likely to believe in a literal interpretation of the wording, and believing in a generally smaller government.
Constitution
A set of rules determining where sovereignty lies in a political system, and establishing the precise relationship between the government and the governed.
Constitutional rights
The rights specifically outlined for citizens within the US Constitution, Bill of Rights and subsequent Amendments.
Conventions
Traditions not contained in law but influential in the operation of a political system.
Co-operation
Working collectively to achieve mutual benefits.
Cosmopolitan integration
The maximum freedom for minority, as well as majority individuals, to mix with, borrow and learn from other cultures.
Cultural Feminism
A form of difference that seeks to challenge the dominance of male culture in society, instead seeking to promote ‘women’s values’.
Cultural globalisation
Growing transmission of ideas, ideas, meanings and values around the world.
Culture
Involves values, customs and beliefs that are passed on through the generations via learning.
Developmental individualism
The idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing.
Democratic Deficit
A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability.
Dependancy Theory
Emphasises structural imbalances within capitalism that impose dependency on poorer states.
Devolution
The dispersal of power, but not sovereignty within a political system.
Dialectic
A process of development that occurs through the conflict between two opposing forces. In Marxism, class conflict creates international contradictions within the society, which drives historical change.
Discrimination
Less-favorable treatment of some groups of people compared to other groups.
Disillusion and apathy
A process of disengagement with politics and political activity. Having no confident in politics and politicians as being able to solve issues and make a difference. Manifested in low turnout at elections and poor awareness of contemporary events.
Direct Action
A whole range of political actions from non-violent to violent actions taken outside of the legal and constitutional framework.
Direct Democracy
All individuals express their opinions themselves and not through representatives acting on their behalf. This type of democracy was emerged in Athens in classical times and direct democracy can be seen today in referendums:from an anarchist perspective, citizens making law and policy decisions in person rather than through elected representatives in a form of popular self-government.
diversity
Different races and cultures within a state are possible, positive and should be celebrated, although the extent to which diversity should extend is continuous
divided government
When the US House of Representatives, Senate and Presidency are not all controlled by one party.
Domestic politics
Issues within the US that directly concern citizens, e.g. health care, gun control and racial issues
Economic globalisation
Growing economic integration and interdependence of economies through intensified cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital.
Egotistical individualism
The idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance
Elective dictatorship
A government that dominates Parliament, usually due to a large majority, and therefore has few limits on its power.
Electoral mandate
the permission granted to a political leader or winning party by the constituency to govern and act on their behalf e.g. to President Obama in 2008 and 2012. the mandate is more or less in effect for as long as the government is in power.
Emerging power
A state that is considered to be rising, primarily in economic power and influence
Empiricism
The idea that knowledge comes from actual experience and not from abstract theories.
Enabling state
A larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free.
entrechment
A system by which the US Constitution is protected from change by law;in this case by the amendment process of article V.
enumerated powers
Such powers are stated explicitly in the US Constitution- for example article I, Section 8 provides a list of congressional powers.
Equality and difference feminism
Feminists who argue that men and women are fundamentally different from one another.
Equality of opportunity
The idea that all humans irrespective of sex, should have an equal opportunity to succeed on society.
Essentialism
The belief that biological factors are significant in the different character and behavior of men and women.
Ethnicity
A form of nationalism based on the belief that a nation has a shared cultural heritage and ancestry.
European Intergration
Process of industrial, political, legal and economic and social cultural integration of states on Europe.
European Union (EU)
Political-economic of 28 members (2015) located in Europe; a political and economic union of a group of European countries.
Evolutionary Socialism
A parliamentary route, which would deliver a long-term, radical transformation in a gradual, piecemeal way through legal and peaceful means, via the state.
executive
the collective group of prime minister, cabinet and junior ministers sometimes known as ‘the government’.
Executive Branch
the executive branch, headed by the US president, is one of the three branches of the US government;the other two are the legislative branch (headed by congress) and the judiciary (headed by the supreme court).
executive orders
A direction to the federal bureaucracy on how the president would like a piece of legislation to be implemented.
Exclusive nationalism
A form of nationalism that believes that it takes time to be a part of the nation, as membership is based on shared history and language.
Factions
The groups (factions) that make up a political parties-ideological wings, particular age and occupation groups, citizens concerned about particular issues-are now a feature of modern politics.
failed state
A state that is unable to operate as a widely viable political unit.
Federalism
Legal and political structures where power is distributed between two distinct levels of government on the basis that neither is subordinate to the other; the US system in which sovereignty is shared between a central government (federal government) and the individual states, with each having their own specific rights
Filibuster
When a US Senator gives a prolonged speech on the floor of the Senate in order to obstruct legislative progress of a bill or confirmation of appointments to the executive or judiciary.
first-past-the-post (FPTP)
An electoral system where the person with the most number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having one more vote than other contenders - it is also called a plurality system.
Formal Equality
The idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society.
Foundational equality
Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away (also known as natural rights and inalienable rights).
Four freedoms (EU)
The principle of free movement of goods, services, capital and people within the EU’s single market.
Franchise/suffrage
Franchise and suffrage both refer to the ability/right to vote in public elections. Suffragettes were women campaigning for the right to vote on the same terms as men.
Fraternity
The bonds of comradeship between human beings.
G7 (8)
Group of seven/eight states.
G20
Group of 20 states
gender equality
The idea that society should treat everyone the same, irrespective of their gender.
Gender Steoreotypes
The different way society expects men and women to behave according to traditional gender roles.
Global actor
Entity that participates or acts in international relations.
Global commons
Areas and resources that are un-owned and consequently beyond national juriadiction.
Global governance
movement towards political integration of transnational actors aimed at negotiating responses to problems that affect more than one state or region;complex process of decision making on a global scale.
Globalisation
Emergence of a complex web of interconnectedness in many forms.
Governing competency
The perceived ability of the governing party in office to manage the affairs of the state well and effectively. It can also be a potential view of opposition parties and their perceived governing competency if they were to secure office.
Government
From an anarchist perspective, government is a particular system of rule, from monarchy monarchism to dictatorship to liberal democracy based on deceit and violence.
government department
A part of the executive, usually with specific responsibility over an area such as education, health or defence.
Great power
State that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale.
Gridlock
A situation in US politics where the president and congress are equally powerful, constantly preventing each other from acting, resulting in difficulty in passing legislation.
Group differentiated rights
Rights that belong to a group, in contrast to a right held by individuals, includes self government rights, polyethnic rights and representation rights.
Hard power
This is the use pf military or economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies.
Harm Principle
The idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
hierarchy
The conservative belief that society is naturally organised in tiers, where one’s position is not based on individual ability.
Historical Materialism
Marxist theory that the economic base (the economic system) forms the superstructure (culture, politics, law, ideology, religion, art and social consciousness).
Homogenisation and monoculture
Coming together of global cultures and development of a single homogeneous culture without diversity or dissention.
House of Commons
The primary chamber of the UK legislature, directly elected by voters.
House of Lords
The second chamber of the UK legislature, not directly elected by voters.
Human imperfection
The traditional conservative belief that humans are flawed in a number of ways which makes them incapable of making good decisions for themselves.
Human rights
Rights that people are entitled to by virtue of being a human being
Humanitarian Intervention
Military intervention that is carried out in pursuit of humanitarian rather than other objectives
identity politics
Advances a critique of liberal universalism as cultural oppression where minorities are marginalised and the claiming of an authentic sense of identity by groups is am act of political liberation
imperial judiciary
A judiciary that is all powerful and on which checks and balances are weak and ineffective.
Imperial Presidency
A dominant presidency with ineffective checks and balances from other branches.
Imperialism/Colonialism
The extension of control by one country over another by settlement or economic domination.
Imperilled presidency
This is the contrasting theory to that of an imperial presidency-it is claimed that the US president does not have enough power to be effective.
Inclusive nationalism
A form of nationalism that believes that joining a nation is straightforward and quick, as it is not based on shared previous experiences.
incumbent
The current holder of a political office such as a politician in the House, Senate or presidency or an MP in parliament.
individualist integration
Institutional adjustments for migrants or minorities as those of individual claimants and bearers of rights as equal citizens.
individual responsibility
The principle by which ministers are responsible for their personal conduct and for their departments.
Informal powers
Powers if the US president not listed in the constitution but taken anyway.
insurrection
Not synonymous with revolution, an egotistic rather that political or social act that allows individuals to elevate themselves above the established institutions, leaving the establishment to decay and die.
Integral Nationalism
An intense, hysterical form of patriotism in which the individual is absorbed into the nation.
Interconnectedness
mutual reliance of two or more groups
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
UN body set up as an internationally accepted authority on climate change.
Intergovernmentalism
interaction among states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence
International anarchy.
the concept that the world system is leaderless: there is no universal sovereign or worldwide government.
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Principal judicial organ of the United Nations
International Criminal Court (ICC)
Organisation that prosecutes individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.
International Law
Laws that govern states and other international actors.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International organisation working to foster global monetary co-operation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.
International tribunals
Organisations set up to prosecute individuals in specific states that crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.
Intersectionality
An idea that challenged the idea the ‘gender’ was the singular factor in determining a woman’s fate arguing that black and working class women’s experiences of patriarchy are different from that of white, middle-class women.
legal equality
That the law applies equally to all and that no one is above the law.
invisible primary
This is the period between when a candidate announces their bid for public office in the US and when the actual primaries take place. It is also sometimes called the ‘money primary’ since candidates spend most of their time during this period raising money in an effort to show political strength.
judicial activism
An approach to judicial decision-making that holds that a justice should use their position desirable social ends.
judicial independence
The principle that judges should not be influenced by other branches of government, particularly the Executive.
Judicial neutrality
The principle that judges should not be influened by their personal political opinions and should remain outside of party politics.
judicial restraint
An approach to judicial decision-making that holds that a justice should defer to the executive and legislative branches, which are politically accountable to the people,and should put great stress on the principal established in previous court decisions.
Judicial Review
The ability of the US Supreme Court to declare acts of congress, and acts of the presidency, unconstitutional and therefore null and void;the power of the to review and sometimes reverse, actions of other branches that breach the law or that are compatible with the Human Rights Act.
Keynesian economics
Government intervention-can stabilize the economy and aims to deliver full employment and price stability.
Keynesianism
An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability.
Laissez-faire
A preference towards minimal government intervention in business and the state of exchange and profit and wealth is privately owned.
laissez-faire capitalism
An economic system, organized by the market where goods are produced.
Left wing
Individuals or parties desiring change, reform and alteration to the way that society operates. Includes socialists, who are critical of the capitalist or free-market economy.
Legal sovereignty
The right to ultimate legal authority in a political system; in the UK, this belongs to parliament.
legislative bills
Proposed laws passing through Parliament.
Legitimacy
The rightful use of power in accordance with pre-set criteria or Widely held agreements, such as governments right to rule following an election or a monarchs succession based on the agreed facts.
Liberal Internationalism
The idea that sovereign states should co-operate and create a level of interdependence to avoid international conflict.
Limited Government
The role of government is restricted by checks and balances, and a separation of powers, as a bulwark against corruption; the power of the US federal government over its states and citizens is subject to limitations as laid out in the constitution
Living Constitution
The idea that the US constitution is an evolutionary document that can change over time through re-interpretation by the Supreme Court (linked to loose constructionism).
Lobbyists
A lobbyist is paid by clients to try to influence the government and/or MPs and members of the House of Lords to act in their clients’ interests, particularly when legislation is under consideration.
Mandate
Following a election, the successful party can claim it has the authority (mandate) to implement its its manifesto promises and also a general permission to govern as new issues arise.
Manifesto
A set of promises for future actions;in its manifesto, a political party will spell out in detail what actions and programmes it would like to put in place if it is successful in the next election.
Marginal Seat
A seat held by the incumbent with a small majority. There is no precise percentage or winning margin to which this aligns but a ten per cent margin would need only a five per cent swing to the rival party.Marginal seats are only important as they are where the outcomes of elections are decided. Only a majority of seats in UK Westminster constituencies are marginal.
Marxism
An ideological system within Socialism that drew on the writings of Marx and Engels and has a core philosophy of history that explains why it is inevitable that capitalism will by replaced by Communism.
Mechanistic Theory
The idea that the state was created by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their interests.
Meritocracy
A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work.
mid-term elections
Congressional elections held mid-way through a US presidents four year term.
Minimal state
The idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.
Minister
An MP or member of the House of Lords appointed to a position i the government usually exercising specific responsibilities in a department.
Minority Government
A government that enters office but which does not have a majority of seats in the legislature (Parliament). This makes passing legislation very difficult.
Modern Liberals
Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led to many individuals not being free. Freedom could no longer simply be defined as ‘being left alone’- the state must still help them in an active way.
multicultural integration
The process of integration are seen as two way and different for different groups and individuals. Multicultural integration creates a new national identity, where all citizens have not just rights but a sense of belonging to the whole, as well as to their own group identity/identities.
Multipolarity
International system revolving around three or more poles
Mutual Aid
The idea that the most successful species are those that employ solidarity and co-operation rather than individualistic competition.
Mutualism
A system of equitable exchange between self-governing producers-organised individually or in association-and small-scale private property based on use or posession.
nation-state
Autonomous political community held together by citizenship and nationality.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
military alliance based on the North Atlantic based on the North Atlantic Treaty signed in 1949.
Negative freedom
The absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference in the private sphere.
New Labour (Third Way)
a revision of the traditional Labour values and ideals represented by ‘Old Labour’. Influenced by Anthony Giddens, the ‘third way’ saw the Labour party shift in emphasis from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider class base and a less robust alliance with the trade unions.
New Right
There are two elements-a)the neo (or new) Conservatives who want the state to take a more authoritarian approach to morality and law and order and b)the neo-liberals who endorsed the free market approach and the rolling back of the state in people’s lives and businesses.
noblesse oblige
The duty of the wealthy and privileged to look after those less fortunate.
Non-democratic state
A state that lacks the central characteristics of a democratic state.
non-governmental organization (NGO)
This is a non-profit, voluntary citizens’ group organised on a local, national or international level e.g. Christian Aid, NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian functions, being citizens’ concerns to governments, advocate and monitor policies and encourage political participation through provision of information.
Non-state actors
Participants in international relations with significant power and influence that are not states.
North-South divide
Global socio-economic political divide.
Old Labour (social democracy)
Key Labour principles embodying nationalisation, redistribution of wealth from rich to poor and the provision of continually improving welfare and state services, which largely rejected Thatcherite/ free-market reforms or a Blairite approach.
One nation
A paternalistic approach adopted by Conservatives under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli in the 19th century and continued by David Cameron and Theresa May in the 21st century, that the rich have an obligation to help the poor.
Opposition
The party that has the second largest allocation of seats after the governing party, or coalition of governing parties, in Parliament.
Originalism
The idea that the meaning if the US constitution is fixed and should not be subject to interpretation.
Otherness
The idea that women were considered to be fundamentally different from men, who were seen as the ‘norm’ and women, deviants from this norm.
Oversight
The ability of one branch of government to supervise the work of another.
Parliament
The British legislature made up of the House of Commons,the House of Lord and the Monarch.
Parliamentary privilege
The right of MPs or Lords to make certain statements within Parliament without being subject to outside influence, including Law.
Parliamentary sovereignty
The principle that Parliament can make, amend or unmake any law, and cannot bind its successors or be bound by its predecessors.
Participation Crisis
A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join or become members of political parties or to offer themselves for public office.
Partisan dealignment
The process where individuals no longer identify themselves on a long-term basis by being associated with a certain political party.
partisnaship
A situation in which US congressmen/women are incredibly loyal to their party, even when it seems that the result is gridlock.
Party systems
The way or manner in which the political parties in a political system are grouped and structured. There are several variants that could apply to the UK, these include one-party dominant, two-party, two-and-a-half party and multi-party systems (UK);the number of parties that have a realistic chance of forming government within a political system (US).
Pluralist democracy
A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations.
Polarity
Describes the nature of the international system at any given time in terms of how power is distributed.
Policy group
A group that attempts to influence a whole policy area e.g. American Israeli PAC (AIPAC)
Political Action Committee (PAC)
This raises and spreads money in order to elect/defeat US electoral candidates, with a donation limit of $55,000 per candidate per election.
Political equality
Equal right to vote,one person one vote, and equal right to protest.
Political globalisation
Growing importance of international organisations
Political sovereignty
The ultimate political power; in the UK’s democracy, the electorate holds this power, which it delegates to parliament.
Positive discrimination
Preferential treatment for for groups in society to correct structural inequality or compensate for historical wrongs.
Positive freedom
The idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential.
Power
From the anarchist viewpoint, power is the means or instruments such as the law, the police and the use of ideology, by which the state and other social institutions secure their authority.
powers of persuasion
This is an informal power of the president in which they can use the prestige of their job,and other bargaining methods, in order to get people to do as they wish.
Presidental Government
An executive dominated by one individual, such as a president or a strong, dominant Prime Minister.
Principle
A fundamental and ‘organizing’ ideas that run throughout the US Constitution e.g. democracy or accountability.
Private sphere
The area in society where relationships are seen as private, specifically home and domestic life.
Professional grouping
A group that represents the economic interests of its members e.g. American Medical Association (AMA), American Bar Association (ABA).
Progressive
Ideas that move towards improving society.
Public bill committees
Committees responsible for looking at bills in detail.
public policy
Legislation and judicial decisions made on any policy that affect the whole of the US population.
Public sphere
The area that in society where relationships are public,specifically life outside the home, particularly society and work.
Racial equality
Racial equality is an equal regard to all races. It can refer to a belief in biological equality of all human races and to social equality for people of different races. In the USA, there remain calls for voter desegregation and voter registration in the South, and better jobs, housing and school integration in the North.
Radical
Belief based on ideas that favour drastic political, economic and social change.
Rational
The idea that humans are capable of reasoned thought and are able to make logical decisions for themselves.
Realism
Wide school of thought in international relations theory based on a belief that world politics will remain a field of conflict among actors pursuing power.
Reformist
Seeking to change society gradually and peacefully.
Regionalism
Creation and implementation of institutions that express a particular identity and shape collective action with a geographical region.
Regressive
Ideas that seek to revert society to a former or less advanced state.
Religious right
The movement, which generally gives support to the Republican Party, as an ultraconservative religious response to the sexual revolution and an attempt to translate this in to public policy, promoting family values, opposing abortion and the 1973 Roe vs. Wade judgement, opposing same-sex marriage, civil partnerships and non-discrimination laws.
represenative democracy
A modern form of democracy through which an individual selects a person (and/or political party) to act on their behalf to exercise political choice.
reserve army of labour
The idea that women constitute a spare workforce that can be called upon as and when needed.
Revisionism
A move to re-define socialism that involves a less radical view of capitalism and a reformed view of socialism.
Right wing
This term reflects support for the status quo, little or no change, stressing the need for order, stability and hierarchy - generally relates to Conservative parties.
Rogue state
A state that has a foreign policy that poses a threat to other states.
Royal Perogative
A set of powers and privileges belonging to the monarch but normally exercised by the Prime Minister or cabinet, such as the granting of honours or legal pardons.
Rule of Law
the principle that all people and bodies, including government, must follow the law and can be held to account of they do or not.
Safe seat
A seat in which the incumbent has a considerable majority over the closest rival and which is largely immune from swings in voting choice. The same political party retains the seat from election to election. A majority of seats in UK Westminster constituencies are safe seats.
Salisbury Convention
The convention whereby the House of Lords does not delay or block legislation that was included in a government’s manifesto.
Secondary legislation
Powers given to the executive by parliament to make changes to the law within certain specific rules.
Security Dilemma
Theory that actions by a state intended to increase its security, such as increasing its military strength, can lead to other states responding with similar measures, producing increased tensions that create tension.
Security Council
The United Nations’ most powerful body, with primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security.
Segregation
The belief that humans can be divided along racial and ethnic lines.
select committees
Committee responsible for scrutinising the work of government, particularly of individual government departments.
Semi-democratic State
A stable state that combines democratic and authoritarian elements.
seperation of powers
The three key bodies of US government-Legislature, executive and judiciary-each have their own powers, personal and buildings. The principle behind the separation of powers ensures a that a system of checks and balances prevents too much power residing with one body.
Single Transferable Vote (STV)
This system allows voters to rank their voting preferences in numerical order rather than simply having one voting choice. In order to obtain a seat, a candidate must obtain a quota. After the votes are cast, those with the least votes are eliminated and their votes transferred and those candidates with excess votes above the quota also have their votes transferred.
single-interest group
A group that advocates policy surrounding small specific issue e.g. the National Rifle Association (NRA).
Social Contract
The idea that the state/society is set up with agreement from the people to respects its laws that serve and protect them.
Social Justice
A distribution of wealth that is morally justifiable and implies a desire to eliminate inequality in society.
Socialist Internationalism
The idea that class solidarity is more powerful and politically significant than national identity.
Soft/hard money
When cash is contributed directly to a political candidate, it is ‘hard money’, which may come only an individual or a political action committee. When cash is distributed to a political party, with no limits attached to the amount that can be received, this is a ‘soft money’ contribution.
Soft power
The ability to attract and co-opt and to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction.
Solidarity
From an anarchist perspective, a relationship of sympathy, co-operation and harmony between people, which means that they have no need to be regulated by the state and that any regulation makes solidarity impossible.
Sovereignty
Absolute and unlimited power and authority.
stare decisis
This doctrine is built on the idea of standing by decided cases, upholding precedents and maintaining former adjudications and thus tends to favour status quo. This is the opposite of the ‘Living Constitution’ approach.
State
From an anarchist perspective, the state is seen as a sovereign body that exerts total authority over all individuals and groups living within its defined geographical limits.
Statute law
laws passed by parliament
Strict/loose constructionist
‘Loose construction’ is a legal philosophy that favours a broad interpretation of a document’s . This term is often used to contrast with ‘strict construction’, a philosophy that favours looking solely at the written text of the law.
Structural Adjustment Program (SAP)
Conditional loans provided by the International Monterey Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to countries that have experienced economic crises.
Super PACs
A Super-Political Action Committee (Super PAC) raises and spends unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose political candidates (a result of Citizens United vs FEC 2010).
Superpower
A state with a dominant position in international relations, pre-eminent among great powers, and characterized by its unparalleled ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale.
Supplementary Vote (SV)
This is a majoritarian system. The voter makes two choices (hence the term ‘supplementary’). If one candidate obtains over 50% on the first vote then the contest is complete, if no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain. Then the supplementary choices are re-distributed and whoever gets most votes from the remaining two, wins the seat.
Supranationalism
refers to a large amount of power given to an authority which in theory is placed higher than the state
Supreme Court
The highest court in the UK political system.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainability
the capacity to endure
Swing justice
An informal name for the Justice on the Supreme Court who falls ideologically in the centre of the nine current Justices.
Syndicalism
Revolutionary trade unionism that uses direct action and the mass strike as an expression of working class power to inspire popular revolt.
Think tanks
A body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic(s) - to investigate and offer solutions to often complicated and seemingly intractable economic, social or political issues.
Tolerance
A willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees.
Tragedy of the Commons
a situation within a shared-resource system where individual users acting independently and rationally according to their own self-interest behave contrary to the common good of all users by depleting or spoiling that resource.
Treaties
Formal agreements with other countries, usually ratified by Parliament.
ultra vires
Literally ‘beyond the powers’. An action that is taken without legal authority when it requires it.
Unanimous consent
A US senator or congressman/woman may request unanimous consent on the floor to set aside a specified rule of procedure so as to expedite proceedings.
Uncodified (codified)
A constitution not contained in a single written document.
Unentrenched (entrenched)
A constitution with no procedure for amendment.
unified government
Where both US Houses of congress and the presidency are controlled by people from the same political party.
Unipolarity
International system in which there is one dominant pole
Unitary (federal)
A political system where all legal sovereignty is contained in a single place.
The United Nations
international organisation formed in 1945, following the Second World War,to promote international co-operation and to prevent another such conflict.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
An international environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janiro in 1992.
Universal Human Rights
Rights that apply to people of all societies regardless of culture or other differences.
Universalism
From a multiculturalist view, universalism is where certain views are applicable to all individuals and all societies, regardless of culture, history, geography or any other differences.
Value Pluralism
There is no absolute conception of the ‘good life’ but rather multiple, competing and equally legitimate conceptions.
Volksgeist
The ‘spirit’ of a nation- the unique identity of a people based on their culture.
Widening-deepening
Process by which the EU has attempted to expand membership while deepening integration.
World Bank
International Organisation that offers concessional loans and grants to the worlds poorest developing countries in order to reduce poverty.
World government
The idea of a common political authority with legislative and executive power over states
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Organisation that regulates international trade
