Conservatism Flashcards
What are two core values of conservatism strongly linked to traditional and One Nation Conservatism?
Pragmatism and tradition
Which writers are associated with pragmatism and tradition in conservatism?
Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott
What does pragmatism reject in favour of practical experience?
Ideology and theory
What does a pragmatic political approach consider?
What is acceptable to and in the best interests of the people
According to Edmund Burke
what is the school of mankind?
According to Michael Oakeshott
what does it mean to be a Conservative?
What does tradition refer to?
The institutions
According to G.K. Chesterton
what does tradition mean?
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding human nature?
Humans lack the intellectual ability to fully understand the complex realities of the world
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding society?
Abstract ideas like equality and rights can lead to radical change and worse conditions
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding the state?
A cautious and gradual approach will introduce necessary reform without endangering social cohesion
What is an argument in favour of pragmatism regarding the economy (One Nation conservatism)?
A ‘middle way’ economic policy combining market competition with government regulation
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding human nature?
Tradition provides a social framework for security-seeking humans to understand society
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding society?
Long-established institutions give communities a strong sense of identity and encourage social cohesion
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding the state?
Tradition represents accumulated wisdom; proven institutions should be preserved
What is an argument in favour of tradition regarding the economy?
The capitalist market system should be maintained as long as it doesn’t undermine conservative values
According to traditional conservatives like Burke
how does cautious pragmatism help society?
What type of economic policy do One Nation conservatives adopt?
A pragmatic ‘middle way’ that combines market competition with government regulation to promote growth and social stability
How do conservatives like Oakeshott view humans?
As flawed
Why does human imperfection need to be reined in according to conservatives?
Because of people’s capacity for evil
According to conservatives
why can humans only exist in an organic state or society?
What are the three aspects of human imperfection according to conservatism?
Psychological
How do conservatives view humans psychologically?
As limited and dependent beings who desire familiarity
How do conservatives view humans morally?
As naturally selfish beings
How do conservatives view humans intellectually?
As lacking the intellect to understand a complex world
Due to the weakness of human nature
what do conservatives argue about the state’s role in law and order and foreign policy?
Due to the weakness of human nature
what do conservatives argue about the basis of society?
Due to the weakness of human nature
what do conservatives argue about the economy?
What is the conservative view of the organic state or society based on?
The view that humans are dependent and security-seeking
According to the organic view
how does society function?
What is authority in the context of the organic state?
Top-down authority that shapes relations between social groups and permeates institutions
What is paternalism in the context of the organic state?
The idea that the most advantaged have the greatest social responsibilities
What is the role of traditional institutions in the organic state?
They preserve the ‘health’ of society and meet the human need for security
What is hierarchy in the context of the organic state?
A system based on fixed ranks and inequalities
What are paternalism and libertarianism in relation to conservative core ideas?
Opposing ideas
Which Conservative government is a good example of paternalistic conservatism?
Harold Macmillan’s government (1957–1963)
Which political figures’ policies were informed by libertarianism?
Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan
What is paternalism in traditional conservative belief?
Government should be led and decisions made by those best equipped through birth
What conservative views is paternalism strongly linked to?
Hierarchy
How is paternalism described in short?
Benign power exerted from above by the state governing in the interest of the population
What did One Nation conservatism do to the notion of paternalism?
Softened it
What is libertarianism in conservative thinking influenced by?
Adam Smith’s arguments for economic liberalism
What does libertarianism advocate?
Individual liberty and maximum economic freedom
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding human nature (traditional conservatives)?
The social elite’s innate abilities give them authority and an obligation to care for the less fortunate
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding human nature (modern One Nation conservatives)?
Successful individuals have a social responsibility to look after those unable to care for themselves due to unevenly distributed ability
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding the economy (One Nation conservatism)?
Government regulation and social welfare are necessary to improve conditions for the poorest
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding society?
The privileged have a social responsibility to care for the less fortunate
What is an argument in favour of paternalism regarding the state (since 1945)?
The modern state is the best agency to deliver social welfare and economic regulation for all
What are the two forms of state-directed paternalism?
Soft (with consent) and hard (imposed regardless of consent)
What does libertarianism reject?
Paternalism and minimal government/state regulation
What is libertarianism now more commonly known as?
The liberal new right or neo-liberalism
Who are key libertarian thinkers?
Friedrich von Hayek
What is an argument in favour of libertarianism regarding the economy?
The free market efficiently supplies goods and services based on demand and determines the ‘natural’ level of unemployment
According to libertarianism
what is the biggest threat to the market economy?
According to libertarianism
how should inflation be curbed?
What does libertarianism argue about state involvement in the mixed economy
welfare
What type of economic policies does libertarianism advocate?
‘Supply side’ policies to boost production by removing obstacles like regulation and high taxation
How does libertarianism view taxation?
As a form of legalised ‘state robbery’ that undermines property rights by transferring income without consent
What is an argument in favour of libertarianism regarding human nature?
Humans are naturally competitive
Why does libertarianism reject social welfare provision on moral grounds?
Because it creates a ‘dependency culture’ undermining personal responsibility
When did traditional conservatism emerge and what was it a response to?
The late 18th century
Which book by Edmund Burke is the classic work in favour of traditional conservatism?
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
How does traditional conservatism view society?
As an organic or ‘living’ body with complex interconnections
What role do traditional institutions play in traditional conservatism?
They represent accumulated experience and wisdom
What is the traditional conservative view on creating a perfect society using abstract theories?
It will fail because it’s not based on past human experience and pragmatism
Who did Burke maintain should govern?
The ‘true natural aristocracy’
What qualities did Burke attribute to the ‘natural aristocracy’?
Ability
From where did Burke think this governing elite would be largely drawn?
The hereditary aristocracy
What were the traditional conservative arguments in defence of aristocratic rule?
The upper class was raised and educated to govern and
What is hierarchy in the context of traditional conservatism?
An organic society must be organized as a hierarchy because people are not equal in ability
How does traditional conservatism view change or reform?
It must be gradual and based on past experience to preserve the balance of society; sudden change is harmful
What principles was aristocratic rule based on according to traditional conservatives?
Paternalism and noblesse oblige
Who did traditional conservatives in the late 18th and early 19th centuries consider the ‘natural’ leaders of society?
The aristocracy
What was the Enlightenment?
An 18th-century European intellectual movement stressing human reason and critical examination of existing ideas and traditions
How did traditional conservatives view much of Enlightenment thinking?
They rejected it as encouraging rapid
What was the focus of Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France?
It attacked the idea that government could be based on abstract principles like liberty and equality
What did Burke believe the French Revolution illustrated?
The dangers of sudden and far-reaching change
Why did Burke think the removal of the monarchy and aristocratic privilege undermined French society?
It challenged established notions of authority
What was Burke’s fear regarding France’s new leaders?
That they would lack the experience
When did One Nation conservatism emerge and what was it a response to?
The 19th century
What is One Nation conservatism in relation to traditional conservatism?
An updated version
Who is generally regarded as the founder of One Nation conservatism?
Benjamin Disraeli
What were the two key reasons for the emergence of One Nation conservatism?
Fears that self-interested individualism was undermining the organic society
How did One Nation conservatism modify the idea of paternalism?
It softened it
What did Disraeli want to achieve with One Nation conservatism?
To reconcile the ‘two nations’ by renewing conservatism’s commitment to reform and social obligation
What were Disraeli’s motives for One Nation conservatism?
Both pragmatic (reducing social discontent
What was Disraeli determined to protect and why?
Traditional British institutions (monarchy
What was Disraeli’s view on the British Empire?
It strengthened national pride and Britain’s global influence
What type of reforms did Disraeli introduce for the working class?
Social reforms like housing
What was the high point of One Nation conservatism?
The Conservative government of 1951–1964
What economic approach did the 1951–1964 One Nation government use?
Keynesian economics to maintain high employment
How did the One Nation government view reforms for the poorest?
As a way to reduce social discontent and preserve the position of the upper classes
What was the One Nation view on the responsibility of the privileged towards the poor?
They had a moral and paternalistic duty to help
Who was Harold Macmillan and what is his significance to One Nation conservatism?
Conservative prime minister (1957–1963) who described One Nation as a ‘middle way’
What did Macmillan’s ‘middle way’ aim to balance?
Unrestrained liberalism (individualism and free market) and socialist collectivism (extensive state control)
Who was R.A. Butler and what did he say about the aim of government policy at the time?
A 1950s–1960s One Nation minister who said policy aimed to bring Disraeli’s ‘two nations’ into a single social entity
What was the title of Macmillan’s classic study proposing a ‘halfway house’ between capitalism and socialism?
The Middle Way (1938)
What did Macmillan’s ‘halfway house’ include?
Public ownership of key industries
What did Macmillan argue a managed economy and ‘orderly capitalism’ would do?
Preserve the cohesion of the ‘one nation’ and prevent social unrest
For how long did One Nation conservatism remain the dominant strand in conservative thinking?
From the 1950s to the 1970s
When did the New Right emerge and what was it a rival to?
The 1970s
What two distinct strands brought together the New Right?
Neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism
Why did New Right thinking gain momentum in the 1970s?
Interventionist government policies failed to combat stagflation
Which political figures are popularly linked with the New Right in the 1980s?
Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan
What terms were frequently used to refer to the New Right perspective of the 1980s?
Reaganism or Thatcherism
What is neo-liberalism in the context of the New Right?
An updated form of classical liberalism calling for a free market
What is neo-conservatism in the context of the New Right?
A modernised version of traditional conservative social thinking emphasizing social order
What are some argued features of the New Right?
Radical
What does the ‘radical’ aspect of the New Right oppose?
Economic and social intervention by the government and adopts anti-permissiveness on social attitudes
What traditional views do neo-conservatives endorse?
Family values
What does the ‘reactionary’ aspect of the New Right often seem to regard as a ‘golden age’?
The 19th century
What does a reactionary person or attitude favour?
A return to an earlier period with positive features currently lacking
What was Charles Murray’s main argument in his study ‘Losing Ground’?
That state welfare provision had created a dependency culture
According to Murray
what did the welfare state’s legal neutrality and liberal nature encourage?
Which economists promoted neo-liberalism in the 1970s?
Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek
Against what did neo-conservatism emerge in the 1970s?
The ‘liberal’ 1960s in the West
What is a key principle of neo-liberalism regarding the economy?
The free market is the most effective mechanism for meeting demand
Against what does neo-liberalism argue the free market must be protected?
Inflation
What does neo-liberalism see as the government’s vital economic role?
To tackle inflation
Which policy did Thatcher and Reagan adopt to reduce inflation?
Friedman’s monetarist policy
What is this neo-liberal approach to economics generally known as?
‘Supply side’ economics
What does neo-liberalism argue about state planning
nationalisation
According to neo-liberalism
why does state welfare provision expand regardless of demand?
What are the results of expanding state welfare provision according to neo-liberalism?
Rising taxation
What is atomistic individualism in neo-liberalism?
The belief that individuals are rational
How does neo-liberalism believe individual freedom can be safeguarded?
By opposing collectivism and ‘rolling back’ the state
What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding social order?
The ‘liberal’ 1960s undermined social order
What are some ways neo-conservatism believes social order can be safeguarded?
Strong political leadership
What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding traditional values?
They must be upheld to strengthen society and restore social discipline
What did Thatcher and Reagan do regarding law and order based on neo-conservative principles?
Took a tough stance
What is a key principle of neo-conservatism regarding public morality?
The permissive culture of the 1960s undermined it by allowing individual moral choices
According to neo-conservatism
what are two problems with allowing individual moral choices?
What example does the text give of how extensive welfare provision undermines atomistic individualism (a neo-liberal principle)?
It creates a dependency culture
Which figures and movements illustrate the neo-conservative concern with public morality?
Thatcher (‘Victorian values’) and the Moral Majority in the USA
What was the main argument of Friedrich von Hayek’s ‘The Road to Serfdom’?
That state interventionism and collectivism erode individual liberty and create a new form of serfdom
Who did Hayek address his study to?
‘The socialists of all parties’
What did Hayek argue free individuals would become dependent on through state intervention?
The state (via welfare provision)
For whom did Hayek’s study become a key text?
Supporters of the free market and opponents of Keynesianism and state welfare
Who are regarded as two of the key conservative thinkers mentioned?
Thomas Hobbes and Edmund Burke
What are the two important conservative ideas Hobbes developed in Leviathan?
Order and human nature
According to Hobbes
what should an ordered society balance?
How does Hobbes describe human nature?
As needy
According to Hobbes
what is the ‘state of nature’?
Why would rational people sacrifice their freedom in the state of nature according to Hobbes?
For security through the establishment of political authority
How is government established according to Hobbes?
By the joint consent of the people
How do humans demonstrate needy and vulnerable characteristics according to Hobbes?
By competing violently for necessities
What does Hobbes say about human capacity to reason?
It is fragile and easily distorted by self-interest
What question did Hobbes pose about individual freedom and the law?
How can a state be governed if every individual can choose to obey the law based on their private opinion?
What are the two key conservative ideas Burke developed in Reflections on the Revolution in France?
Change to conserve and respect for tradition and empiricism
According to Burke
how should change be undertaken?
Why should tradition and empiricism be respected according to Burke?
Because they represent practices passed down through generations
How does Burke describe the state in relation to change?
Like a living organism that needs gentle ‘pruning’ or ‘grafting’ to preserve stability
What should reform be based on according to Burke?
Empiricism and tradition
What does Burke say revolutionary change threatens to do?
Cut off the ‘roots’ of the organic society
What do tradition and empiricism represent according to Burke?
The accumulated and ‘tested’ wisdom of the past in society’s institutions and customs
How does respect for tradition and empiricism promote social order according to Burke?
By encouraging continuity
According to Burke
how should one approach altering long-standing societal structures?
Which other conservative thinkers are mentioned?
Oakeshott
What two concepts did Oakeshott stress in his works?
Human imperfection and pragmatism
According to Oakeshott
what is society like?
According to Oakeshott
what are humans like?
According to Oakeshott
what is conservatism about?
According to Oakeshott
what is a ‘rationalist’ political leader inclined to do?
What dangerous idea does this encourage according to Oakeshott?
That the leader fully understands society and how to change it
According to Oakeshott
what should guide political thinking and action?
What are the aims of pragmatic political action according to Oakeshott?
To ensure public acceptance
Which political system does Oakeshott see as a good example of pragmatic thinking?
The British parliamentary system
What did Ayn Rand’s novels advocate?
Objectivism and freedom
What is objectivism according to Rand?
Rational self-interest is a virtue; pursuing it is morally right (‘the virtue of selfishness’)
What kind of economy did Rand support?
A completely unregulated
According to Rand
what is this type of economy compatible with?
What concept did Robert Nozick promote in Anarchy
State and Utopia?
What rights do individuals have according to Nozick’s libertarianism?
Rights to their lives
What principle underlies Nozick’s view of individual rights?
Individuals cannot be treated as things or used against their will
What is self-ownership according to Nozick?
Individuals own their own bodies
What threatens self-ownership according to Nozick?
Enforced taxation for welfare and state regulation over the individual
Why are taxes for state welfare immoral according to Nozick?
Because they treat individuals as a means rather than an end
What kind of state does Nozick believe is justified?
Only a minimal state
