Key words Flashcards
psychology
Encoding
The process of changing information so it can be stored in memory
Storage
Holding information in memory for a period of time
Retrieval
Accessing stored information when needed
Short-term memory
A temporary store with limited capacity (18-30 seconds)
Long-term memory
A permanent memory store with unlimited capacity
Multi-Store Model (MSM)
A model of memory with three stages (sensory memory, STM, LTM.
Reconstructive memory
The idea that memories are not exact copies but are influenced by prior knowledge
Perception
the brain interpretation of sensory information
Depth cues
visual clues that help us judge distance and depth
optical illusions
images that trick the brain into seeing something that isn’t there
Gesalt Principles
the way the brain groups visual elements together to make sense of them
nature vs. nurture
The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has a greater influence on behavior
schemas
mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information
fixed mindset
the belief that intelligence is static, cannot change
growth mindset
the belief that intelligence can be developed through effort and learning
conformity
adjusting behavior or beliefs to fit in with a group
obedience
following direct orders from an authority figure
Bystander effect
the tendency for people to be less likely to help when others are present
Deindividuation
Losing personal identity and responsibility when in a group
Hypothesis
a testable prediction of what will happen in a study
Independent variable
the variable that is manipulated in an experiment
dependent variable
The variable that is measured in an experiment
Correlation
a relationship between two variables (positive, negative, or no correlation).
Reliability
The consistency of a study’s result
Validity
Whether a study measures what it claims to measure
neurons
nerve cells that transmit information in the brain
synapse
the gap between neurons, where neurotransmitters are released
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons
Lobes of the brain
The four main areas of the brain (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal)
depression
a mood disorder characterized by persistent sadness, low energy, and loss of interest
Addiction
A condition where a person compulsively engages in a behavior or substance despite negative consequences
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
A treatment method that helps change negative thought patterns
Laboratory experiment
An experiment conducted in a controlled environment where variables are carefully managed
Field experiment
An experiment conducted in a natural setting, researchers still manipulate variables
Natural experiment
An experiment where the IV is not manipulated by the researcher but occurs naturally
Quasi- experiment
A study where the IV is naturally occurring, but participants cannot randomly be assigned to conditions
Extraneous Variable
other factors that might affect the DV, but are not the IV.
Confounding variable
Variables that were not controlled and have affected the results, making them less valid.
operationalisation
defining variables in a way that they can be measured (eg. defining stress as heart rate in beats per minute)
Independent groups design
participants are split into different groups, with each group experiencing only one condition of the IV
Repeated measures design
The same participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Matched pairs design
Participants are paired based on similarities
Random sampling
Every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected
Opportunity sampling
using readily available participants
volunteer sampling
Participants volunteer to take part in the study
Stratified sampling
selecting participants to ensure the sample reflects the proportions of different groups in the population
demand characteristics
when participants change their behavior because they guess the aim of the study
Investigator effect
when a researcher’s behavior unintentionally influences participants
Informed consent
Participants must be fully informed about the study and agree to take part
Deception
Misleading or lying to participants
Confidentiality
Keeping participants’ data private
Right to withdraw
Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty
Protection from Harm
Researchers must ensure participants do not experience distress
Ecological Validity
How well findings apply to real-world settings
Internal Validity
Whether the results are due to the IV and not the other factors
External Validity
Whether the results can be generalized beyond the study
Qualitative methods
ways of conducting research that find new information rather than testing a prediction
Quantitative methods
ways of conducting research that test a prediction and gather quantitative data.
Researcher Bias
when the researchers interpret the outcome of a study according to their viewpoint
Sampling method
a technique used to gather a representative group of people as a sample from the target population
target population
the group of people being investigated in the study
Sample
a selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation
Individualistic culture
a culture that emphasises independence, autonomy, and individuality
Collectivistic culture
a culture that emphasises group membership, interdependence, and cooperation
Generalisability
the extent to which the results of a study represent the whole population
Social issue
a social problem or conflict that affects a community of people
Prosocial behavior
behavior that is seen as helpful, kind, cooperative, and peaceful
Antisocial behavior
behavior that is unhelpful, destructive and aggressive
Locus of control
the extent to which we believe we have control over our own life/behavior
internal locus of control
when we feel we have personal control over our behavior
external locus of control
when we feel that factors external to us control our behavior.
Cerebrum
the largest part of the brain where higher processing happens; it includes the cortex
Cortex
the outer layer of the brain
spinal cord
a pathway of nerves inside the spine, which connects the brain to the rest of the body
brainstem
the part of the brain that connects the spinal cord to the upper brain
Hemisphere
half of the brain; the right hemisphere is on the right and the left hemisphere is on the left
Frontal lobe
the area at the front of the brain responsible for decision-making and impulse control
reflexes
actions that are automatic and do not require conscious thought.
Temporal Lobe
the area on the side of the brain that controls hearing and memory
Parietal lobe
the area at the top of the brain that plays an important role in perception and sensations of touch
Occipital lobe
the area at the back of the brain that controls vision
Cerebellum
the area of the brain near to the brainstem that controls motor movements
Reinforcement
an outcome resulting from behavior that increases the chance of the behavior being repeated or avoided in the future.
Placebo
an inactive substance, (fake pill) used to make the person think they took an active substance.
withdrawal
a set of unpleasant physical or psychological symptoms someone gets when they are trying to quit an addiction
Reuptake
the process by which neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters that they released
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter associated with controlling mood
Circadian rhythms
human body rhythms that have a daily (24-hour) cycle
Sleep-wake cycle
a daily rhythm generally triggered by the day-night cycle
Ultradian rhythms
rhythms that occur in a period of less than 24-hours, such as a sleep cycle
Insomnia
problems with sleeping at night that cause difficulties during the day
Narcolepsy
inability to control sleeping and waking, so experiencing involuntary daytime sleeping
