Key Words Flashcards
Hypothesis
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict/s will be the outcome of the study.
Aim
An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation.
Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the IV and the DV.
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the IV and DV.
One-Tailed Hypothesis
A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the IV on the DV.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis
A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV, but the direction of the effect is not specified.
Variable
A variable is something that can be changed or varied, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.
Independent Variable
The variable/s the experimenter manipulates (i.e. Changes).
Dependent Variable
A DV is the variable which is measured by the experimenter after they have manipulated the IV.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are other variables (not the IV) which could affect the results of the experiment e.g. the weather
Experimental design
The process of planning a study to meet specified objectives. The way you decide how to group your participants
Individual measures design
Where each participant is only assigned to one condition of the IV.
Repeated measures design
Where each participant is assigned to more than one condition of the IV
Matched-pairs Design
There are equal groups where participants are matched based on certain characteristics e.g. gender, age…etc. Each group takes part in a different condition of the IV.
Participant
A person that takes part in the experiment or study.
Confederate
A confederate is an actor who participates in an experiment as a subject along with the other participant(s).
Sample
A section of the population that is used to represent the group as a whole.
Random sample
Each participant of the study/experiment have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Systematic sample
Participants of the study are selected in a logical way from a target population. For example, if 200 University students out of 2000 were required for a study, every 10th student from the University list/register would be selected.
Opportunity sample
Participants are selected based on who is available at the time and willing to participate.
Stratified sample
The researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative.
Experiment
A scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact by investigating the change of an IV and how it has an effect on the DV
Laboratory Experiment
An experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions to investigate the effect that the change of an IV has on the DV
Field Experiment
An experiment carried out in the everyday environment (i.e. real life) of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV and tests the effect on the DV, but the researcher has no control over extraneous variables.
Quasi Experiment
In these experiments the researcher has no control over the IV, but instead must choose a variable that is naturally occurring within the participant and then test the effect it has on the DV. Quasi experiments can be carried out in artificial or natural settings.
Observations
Observing of participants behaviour through controlled or uncontrolled conditions.
Naturalistic observation
A research method where the participant’s behaviour is studied in a natural environment. Typically there would be no IV.
Controlled observation
Participant’s behaviour is usually observed in a controlled environment (laboratory). Typically there would be no IV unless it was a Lab experiment utilising observation.
Overt observations
The research is open with their participants about observing their behaviour. The participants know that they are being studied.
Covert Observations
The participants are unaware of the presence of the researcher and they are NOT made aware that their behaviour is being observed.
Participant observation
The observer takes part in the experiment.
Non-Participant Observation
The researcher observes participants without participating in the experiment itself.
Case Study
A piece of research carried out on a particular person, group or situation over a period of time.
Longitudinal Study
A method where data is gathered from the same participants over a period of time. This type of research can be as long as a few years to decades.
Snap-shot study
Different groups of people are tested at the same point in time and their performances are compared.
Correlational study
A method where the researcher aims to look for relationships between variables.
Cross-cultural study
The research of participants from different cultural groups.
Psychometric tests
A method of measuring participant’s mental characteristics; often gathering quantitative data.
Interview
An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given.
Structured interview
Each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the same order and the researcher aims to obtain quantitative data.
Unstructured Interviews
Questions in this style of interview are not prearranged. The data obtained from this style of interview is usually qualitative.
Questionnaires
A set of written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.
Open–ended questions
Are questions which obtain qualitative data by asking questions which cannot be answered with a simple one-word answer.
Closed-ended questions
Are questions which can be answered with a simple one-word answer e.g. “yes” or “no”.
Rating scales
Requires participants to answer a question by selecting a value (number) to reflect their perception on a topic.
Likert rating
This is a type of question that measures the attitude of individuals. An attitude statement is given and individuals have to select the statement most suited to them.
Primary Data
First-hand information that has been collected by the researcher for the purpose of their study.
Secondary data
The researcher uses pre-existing data. The data could have been from a newspaper, diary entry or even data collected by another researcher or study.
Qualitative data
Typically descriptive data.
Quantitative data
Data that can be measured and written down with numbers.
Gender bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to one gender.
Cultural bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to one ethnicity/culture.
Enthocentricism
The researcher uses their own ethnicity for judgement about other groups.
Eurocentricism
Psychologists place emphasis on European theories/ideas at the expense of those of other cultures.
Age bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to a certain age group.
Experimenter bias
The researcher influences the results in order to portray a certain outcome.
Observer bias
The researcher’s cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously influence the participants of an experiment.
Reliability
The overall consistency of the measure or study.
Internal Reliability
Assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.
Internal reliability: Split half Reliability
The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half.
Internal reliability: Inter-rater reliability
The method of measuring the external consistency of a test. This method is carried out by different “raters” giving consistent estimates/measures of behaviour.
External Reliability
Refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another.
External reliability: Test Re-test reliability
The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. Examples of appropriate tests include questionnaires and psychometric tests. It measures the stability of a test over time. A typical assessment would involve giving participants the same test on two separate occasions. If the same or similar results are obtained then external reliability is established.
Validity
Refers to the accuracy of a test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to measure.
External Validity
Whether the findings will generalise to other populations, locations, contexts and times and still hold true.
External Validity: Ecological validity
Refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalised to real-life settings.
External Validity: Population Validity
How representative the sample used is to the entire population.
External Validity: Historical/Temporal Validity
Will the findings still be valid as society changes over the years e.g. will a study conducted about female behaviour in 1965, generalise to females today?
Internal Validity
Within your measure, the IV is the only variable effecting the DV.
Internal Validity: Face Validity
The degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims.
Internal Validity: Construct Validity
Does what your measuring exist? For example does Freud’s Oedipus complex have construct validity? Construct validity can only arise as a result of rigorous research, rather than just one single measure.
Internal Validity: Concurrent Validity
Whether a measure produces similar results for a participant as another test that claims to measure the same thing e.g. a participant completes a brand new test for autism and gained very similar results in a previously well-established test of autism.
Internal Validity: Criterion Validity
Whether a factor measured in one way will relate to, or predict some other related variable. For example; can your tests in year 7, predict the grades you will get in your GCSE’s. This is also known as predictive validity.
Demand Characteristics
A subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave.
Observer Effect
Refers to subjects altering their behaviour when they are aware that an observer is present. The observer could create this deliberately or unintentionally.
Social Desirability
Describes the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others.
Type 1 error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a “false positive”). Type 1, you think you’ve won – The researcher believes that there is an effect when actually there is not one.
Type 2 Error
Incorrectly retaining a false null hypothesis (a “false negative”). Type 2, you think its poo – The researcher believes there is no effect when actually there is.
