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Psychology - Research Methods > Key Words > Flashcards

Key Words Flashcards

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1
Q

Experimental method

A

Involves the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi

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2
Q

Aim

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study

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3
Q

Hypothesis

A

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study

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4
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship

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5
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

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6
Q

Variables

A

Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another

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7
Q

Independent variable (IV)

A

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured

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8
Q

Dependent variable (DV)

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV

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9
Q

Operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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10
Q

Extraneous variable (EV)

A

Any variable other than the independent variable (IV), that may affect the dependent variable (DV) if it is not controlled. EV’s are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV

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11
Q

Confounding variables

A

A kind of EV but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable

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12
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.

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13
Q

Investigator effects

A

Any effect on the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process

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14
Q

Randomisation

A

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions

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15
Q

Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

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16
Q

Experimental design

A

The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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17
Q

Independent groups design

A

participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

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18
Q

Repeated measures

A

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

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19
Q

Matched pairs design

A

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B

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20
Q

Random allocation

A

An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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21
Q

Counterbalancing

A

An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order

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22
Q

Laboratory (lab) experiment

A

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables

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23
Q

Field experiment

A

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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24
Q

Natural experiment

A

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on

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25
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment

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26
Q

Population

A

A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn

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27
Q

Sample

A

A group of people who take part in a research investigation and is presumed to be representative of that population, i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for the population being studied

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28
Q

Sampling techniques

A

The method used to select people from the population

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29
Q

Bias

A

In the context of sampling, when certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected. For instance, there may be too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

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30
Q

Generalisation

A

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the target population

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31
Q

Ethical issues

A

These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data

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32
Q

BPS code of ethics

A

A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

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33
Q

Pilot study

A

A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc. work. The aim is also to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary

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34
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it could normally occur

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35
Q

Controlled observation

A

Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed

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36
Q

Covert observation

A

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

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37
Q

Overt observation

A

Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

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38
Q

Participant observation

A

The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

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39
Q

Non-participant observation

A

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

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40
Q

Behavioural categories

A

When a behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)

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41
Q

Event sampling

A

A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

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42
Q

Time sampling

A

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say, every 60 seconds

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43
Q

Self-report technique

A

Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic

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44
Q

Questionnaire

A

A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/pr experiences

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45
Q

Interview

A

A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview)

46
Q

Open questions

A

Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish. For example, Why did you take up smoking?

47
Q

Closed questions

A

Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter. For example, Do you smoke? (yes/no)

48
Q

Correlation

A

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables

49
Q

Co-variables

A

The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship

50
Q

Positive correlation

A

As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise tend to be positively correlated

51
Q

Negative correlation

A

As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and amount of personal space tend tend to be negatively correlated

52
Q

Zero correlation

A

When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru is likely to be zero

53
Q

Qualitative data

A

Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data can be converted to numbers for the purposes of analysis)

54
Q

Quantitative data

A

Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers

55
Q

Primary data

A

Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation

56
Q

Secondary data

A

Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics

57
Q

Meta-analysis

A

The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies. A meta-analysis should not be confused with a review where a number of studies are compared and discussed

58
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data

59
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data

60
Q

Mean

A

The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values

61
Q

Median

A

The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest

62
Q

Mode

A

The most frequently occurring value in a set of data

63
Q

Scattergram

A

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis

64
Q

Bar chart

A

A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars

65
Q

Histogram

A

A type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars (not just the height) represents frequency. The x-asis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous

66
Q

Statistical testing

A

Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. By using a statistical test we can find out whether differences of relationships between variables are significant (meaningful) or are likely to have occurred by chance

67
Q

Sign test

A

A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items (e.g. the same participants tested twice). Data should be nominal or better

68
Q

Peer review

A

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality

69
Q

Economy

A

The state of a country or region in terms of the production and and consumption of goods and services

70
Q

Research methods

A

The process by which information or data is collected usually for the purpose of testing a hypothesis and/or a theory

71
Q

Case studies

A

An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event

72
Q

Content analysis

A

A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media

73
Q

Coding

A

The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories (which may be words, sentences, phrases, etc)

74
Q

Thematic analysis

A

An inductive and qualitive approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded

75
Q

Reliability

A

Refers to how consistent a measuring device is - and this includes psychological tests or observations which assess behaviour

76
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test (or other measure) produces the same answers i.e. is consistent or reliable

77
Q

Inter-observer reliability

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers. A general rule is that if (total number of agreements) / (total number of observations) > + .80, the data has high inter-observer reliability

78
Q

Validity

A

The extent to which an observed effect is genuine - does it measure what it was supposed to measure, and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found?

79
Q

Face validity

A

A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure - for instance, does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety?

80
Q

Concurrent validity

A

The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure

81
Q

Ecological validity

A

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. A form of external validity

82
Q

Temporal validity

A

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. A form of external validity

83
Q

Statistical tests (also called inferential tests)

A

Used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists (and consequently, whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or retained)

84
Q

Levels of measurement

A

Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal and interval

85
Q

Spearman’s rho

A

A test for a correlation when data is at least ordinal level

86
Q

Pearson’s r

A

A parametric test for a correlation when data is at interval level

87
Q

Wilcoxon

A

A test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using a related design (repeated measures)

88
Q

Mann-Whitney

A

A test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using an unrelated design (independent groups)

89
Q

Related t-test

A

A parametric test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval level with a related design, i.e. repeated measures or matched pairs

90
Q

Unrelated t-test

A

A parametric test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval level with an unrelated deisng, i.e. independent groups

91
Q

Chi-Squared

A

A test for an association (difference or correlation) between two variables or conditions. Data should be nominal level using an unrelated (independent) design

92
Q

Probability

A

A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty

93
Q

Significance

A

A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A ‘significant’ result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis

94
Q

Critical value

A

When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut-off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis

95
Q

Type I error

A

The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)

96
Q

Type II error

A

The failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)

97
Q

Abstract (reporting psychological investigations)

A

The key details of the research report

98
Q

Introduction (reporting psychological investigations)

A

A look at past research (theories and/or studies) on a similar topic. Includes the aims and hypothesis of current investigation

99
Q

Method (reporting psychological investigations)

A

A description of what the researcher(s) did, including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics

100
Q

Results (reporting psychological investigations)

A

A description of what the researcher(s) found, including descriptive and inferential statistics

101
Q

Discussion (reporting psychological investigations)

A

A consideration of what the results of a research study tell us in terms of psychological theory

102
Q

References (reporting psychological investigations)

A

List of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article (e.g. journal articles, books or websites) and their full details

103
Q

Objectivity

A

All sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process

104
Q

Empirical method

A

Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience

105
Q

Replicability

A

The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers

106
Q

Falsifiability

A

The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue (false)

107
Q

Theory construction

A

The process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and then organising this into a coherent account (theory)

108
Q

Hypothesis testing

A

A key feature of a theory that is that it should produce statements (hypotheses) which can then be tested. Only in this way can a theory be falsified

109
Q

Paradigm

A

A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline

110
Q

Paradigm shift

A

The result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline

Psychology - Research Methods (4 decks)

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