Key Words Flashcards
Experimental method
Involves the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). Experiments may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi
Aim
A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study
Hypothesis
A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study
Directional hypothesis
States the direction of the difference or relationship
Non-directional hypothesis
Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship
Variables
Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another
Independent variable (IV)
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher - or changes naturally - so the effect on the DV can be measured
Dependent variable (DV)
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV
Operationalisation
Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
Extraneous variable (EV)
Any variable other than the independent variable (IV), that may affect the dependent variable (DV) if it is not controlled. EV’s are essentially nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV
Confounding variables
A kind of EV but the key feature is that a confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable
Demand characteristics
Any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation.
Investigator effects
Any effect on the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with, participants during the research process
Randomisation
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions
Standardisation
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
Experimental design
The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
Independent groups design
participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
Repeated measures
All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
Matched pairs design
Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B
Random allocation
An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order
Laboratory (lab) experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on
Quasi-experiment
A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or any other person) - the ‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
Sample
A group of people who take part in a research investigation and is presumed to be representative of that population, i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for the population being studied
Sampling techniques
The method used to select people from the population
Bias
In the context of sampling, when certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected. For instance, there may be too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.
Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the target population
Ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data
BPS code of ethics
A quasi-legal document produced by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales, etc. work. The aim is also to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it could normally occur
Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed
Covert observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
Overt observation
Participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording
Behavioural categories
When a behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)
Event sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say, every 60 seconds
Self-report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
Questionnaire
A set of written questions (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess a person’s thoughts and/pr experiences
Interview
A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on the phone) where one person (the interviewer) asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be pre-set (as in structured interview) or may develop as the interview goes along (unstructured interview)
Open questions
Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response and respondents can answer in any way they wish. For example, Why did you take up smoking?
Closed questions
Questions for which there is a fixed choice of responses determined by the question setter. For example, Do you smoke? (yes/no)
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables
Co-variables
The variables investigated within a correlation, for example height and weight. They are not referred to as the independent and dependent variables because a correlation investigates the association between the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect relationship
Positive correlation
As one co-variable increases so does the other. For example, the number of people in a room and noise tend to be positively correlated
Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases the other decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and amount of personal space tend tend to be negatively correlated
Zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables. For example, the association between the number of people in a room in Manchester and the total daily rainfall in Peru is likely to be zero
Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical (although qualitative data can be converted to numbers for the purposes of analysis)
Quantitative data
Data that can be counted, usually given as numbers
Primary data
Information that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project. In psychology, such data is often gathered directly from participants as part of an experiment, self-report or observation
Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project. In psychology, such data might include the work of other psychologists or government statistics
Meta-analysis
The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of studies. A meta-analysis should not be confused with a review where a number of studies are compared and discussed
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data
Measures of central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
Mean
The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values
Median
The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest
Mode
The most frequently occurring value in a set of data
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis
Bar chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars
Histogram
A type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars (not just the height) represents frequency. The x-asis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous
Statistical testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. By using a statistical test we can find out whether differences of relationships between variables are significant (meaningful) or are likely to have occurred by chance
Sign test
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items (e.g. the same participants tested twice). Data should be nominal or better
Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
Economy
The state of a country or region in terms of the production and and consumption of goods and services
Research methods
The process by which information or data is collected usually for the purpose of testing a hypothesis and/or a theory
Case studies
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of a single individual, group, institution or event
Content analysis
A research technique that enables the indirect study of behaviour by examining communications that people produce, for example, in texts, emails, TV, film and other media
Coding
The stage of a content analysis in which the communication to be studied is analysed by identifying each instance of the chosen categories (which may be words, sentences, phrases, etc)
Thematic analysis
An inductive and qualitive approach to analysis that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded
Reliability
Refers to how consistent a measuring device is - and this includes psychological tests or observations which assess behaviour
Test-retest reliability
A method of assessing the reliability of a questionnaire or psychological test by assessing the same person on two separate occasions. This shows to what extent the test (or other measure) produces the same answers i.e. is consistent or reliable
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers. A general rule is that if (total number of agreements) / (total number of observations) > + .80, the data has high inter-observer reliability
Validity
The extent to which an observed effect is genuine - does it measure what it was supposed to measure, and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found?
Face validity
A basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure - for instance, does a test of anxiety look like it measures anxiety?
Concurrent validity
The extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure
Ecological validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations. A form of external validity
Temporal validity
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras. A form of external validity
Statistical tests (also called inferential tests)
Used in psychology to determine whether a significant difference or correlation exists (and consequently, whether the null hypothesis should be rejected or retained)
Levels of measurement
Quantitative data can be classified into types or levels of measurement, such as nominal, ordinal and interval
Spearman’s rho
A test for a correlation when data is at least ordinal level
Pearson’s r
A parametric test for a correlation when data is at interval level
Wilcoxon
A test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using a related design (repeated measures)
Mann-Whitney
A test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data should be at least ordinal level using an unrelated design (independent groups)
Related t-test
A parametric test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval level with a related design, i.e. repeated measures or matched pairs
Unrelated t-test
A parametric test for a difference between two sets of scores. Data must be interval level with an unrelated deisng, i.e. independent groups
Chi-Squared
A test for an association (difference or correlation) between two variables or conditions. Data should be nominal level using an unrelated (independent) design
Probability
A measure of the likelihood that a particular event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty
Significance
A statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A ‘significant’ result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis
Critical value
When testing a hypothesis, the numerical boundary or cut-off point between acceptance and rejection of the null hypothesis
Type I error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a false positive)
Type II error
The failure to reject a false null hypothesis (a false negative)
Abstract (reporting psychological investigations)
The key details of the research report
Introduction (reporting psychological investigations)
A look at past research (theories and/or studies) on a similar topic. Includes the aims and hypothesis of current investigation
Method (reporting psychological investigations)
A description of what the researcher(s) did, including design, sample, apparatus/materials, procedure, ethics
Results (reporting psychological investigations)
A description of what the researcher(s) found, including descriptive and inferential statistics
Discussion (reporting psychological investigations)
A consideration of what the results of a research study tell us in terms of psychological theory
References (reporting psychological investigations)
List of sources that are referred to or quoted in the article (e.g. journal articles, books or websites) and their full details
Objectivity
All sources of personal bias are minimised so as not to distort or influence the research process
Empirical method
Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience
Replicability
The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers
Falsifiability
The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue (false)
Theory construction
The process of developing an explanation for the causes of behaviour by systematically gathering evidence and then organising this into a coherent account (theory)
Hypothesis testing
A key feature of a theory that is that it should produce statements (hypotheses) which can then be tested. Only in this way can a theory be falsified
Paradigm
A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline
Paradigm shift
The result of a scientific revolution when there is a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline
