Key Thinkers

Question 1

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

key information

Answer 1

arguably the most celebrated English political philosopher, Hobbes made very important contributions to conservative thought and shaped the belief in human imperfection

key ideas…
human nature
authority
the state (strong state)

Question 2

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on society

Answer 2

an ordered society should balance the human need to lead a free life

freedom without order and authority would have disastrous consequences for human society – comes from his ideas on human nature

Question 3

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on society and human nature: state of nature

Answer 3

created a hypothetical situation known as the ‘state of nature’ where people were equal and free and did not have to answer to any form of higher authority

he argued that under such circumstances, humans would exhibit a “restless desire” for power, which would lead to conflict and a “war of every man against every man”

in other words, a state of nature would become a state of war and life would become “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”

in order to avoid “a war of all against all”, Hobbes argued that a Leviathan authority figure is needed (a strong leader)

Question 4

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on the state: what is government established from?

Answer 4

government is established from the consent of the people – the people grant power to those governing and authorise them to do everything necessary to preserve order and peace, they submit to the absolute authority of the state

Question 5

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on the state: why is there a need for authority and a strong state?

Answer 5

there is a need for political authority and a strong government because humans are vulnerable, imperfect and easily led astray – they require guidance in the form of a state

government is required to restrict the negative sides of human nature, without government we will resort to our basic violent instincts - which he described through the ‘state of nature’

Question 6

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on the state: what did he argue for in Leviathan?

Answer 6

in Leviathan (1651), his most famous work, he argued for almost total obedience to absolute government – the only alternative to obedience and absolute government is chaos

Hobbes used the term ‘leviathan’ to refer to an absolute government which represents a “common power to keep them all in awe”

Question 7

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on the state: key quote

Answer 7

“How could a state be governed or protected… if every individual remained free to obey or not to obey the law according to his private opinion?”

Question 8

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on human nature: humans are fearful and self interested

Answer 8

people are fearful and self-interested – they will choose to sacrifice many of their rights and freedoms in return for order and security

they will enter into a social contract to establish political authority and surrender most of their natural rights (except the right to self-defence) to the individual or group to whom they defer authority

Question 9

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on human nature: human vulnerability and the need for a strong state

Answer 9

humans are vulnerable, imperfect and easily led astray

they require guidance in the form of a state, so there is a need for political authority and a strong government to prevent the negative sides of human nature (without a strong state we will resort to our basic violent instincts)

people will compete violently to obtain basic necessities and other material gains, they will challenge others and fight out of fear in order to ensure their personal safety

the best humans hope for is a peaceful life under strong government to guarantee order and security, the alternative to strong government is to accept the “natural condition of mankind” with its violence, insecurity and constant threats

Question 10

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on human nature: what do humans seek?

Answer 10

humans seek reputation, both for its own sake and so others will be too afraid to challenge them

Question 11

Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

views on human nature: intellectual imperfection

Answer 11

the human capacity to reason is fragile, people’s attempts to understand the world around them tend to be distorted by self-interest and concerns of the moment

we are easily led astray by such attempts to understand the world

Question 12

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

key information

Answer 12

Irish born politician and writer, commonly regarded as a founder of modern conservatism and closely associated with traditional conservatism

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) is his most well known work in which he criticised the Frech Revolution and developed a number of key conservative values

key ideas....
organic society
tradition
change
the state

Question 13

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on change: what must change be?

Answer 13

change must be undertaken with great caution and consideration must be given to the delicate balance inherent in an organic society

the state and society must only be changed when necessary, and if change is necessary, it should be achieved through gradual and incremental reform in order to preserve stability and social harmony – revolution should be avoided at all costs

reform should be limited, cautious and based on empiricism, it must always take the past and tradition into account

Question 14

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on change: what is the problem with revolutionary change?

Answer 14

drastic change can only end in chaos and tyranny – abstract principles have not stood the test of time whereas traditional institutions have, they are known to work and should not be changed

revolutionary change cuts off society’s ‘roots’ (aka institutions and customs) and leads to complete social and political breakdown

Question 15

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on change: key quote

Answer 15

“It is with infinite caution that any man ought to venture upon pulling down an edifice which has answered in any tolerable degree for ages the common purposes of society”

Question 16

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on tradition: what was his main problem with the French Revolution?

Answer 16

his main problem with the French Revolution was that it represented an attempt to create a new society and system of government based on abstract principles (such as liberty and equality) and dismissed the lessons of the past

links to human nature being intellectually imperfect so we should not rely on abstract ideas

Question 17

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on tradition: respect for tradition

Answer 17

tradition and empiricism (the idea that knowledge comes from real experience and not from abstract theories) should be respected because they come from practices passed down from one generation to the next

heavy emphasis of tradition as it represents the accumulated wisdom of the past, our long standing institutions, customs and practices have stood the test of time so should be respected and upheld

respect for tradition promotes social continuity and stability, establishes an obligation or duty for each generation to protect and pass on the accumulated wisdom of tradition to the next generation, provides society and the individual with a strong sense of historical and national identity

Question 18

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on tradition: key quote

Answer 18

“We procure reverence to our civil institutions on the principle which Nature teaches us to revere individual men: on account of their age and on account of those from whom they are descended”

Question 19

Edmund Burke (1729 - 97)

views on the state

Answer 19

the state resembles a living organism – so change should be organic and gradual

Question 20

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

key information

Answer 20

British political philosopher who made a significant contribution to conservative thinking on human imperfection and pragmatism

famous works - Rationalism in Politics (1962), On Human Conduct (1975)

key ideas...
pragmatism
society
human imperfection
tradition

Question 21

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on pragmatism: why should we be guided by pragmatism?

Answer 21

people’s thoughts and actions should be guided by pragmatism rather than ideology, this is because theories and ideologies oversimplify complex situations

any attempts to make sense of society via ideology distorts and simplifies the facts

this links to the idea of human imperfection, we are intellectually imperfect and do not have the mental capabilities to make sense of such a complex modern world

Question 22

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on pragmatism: what do political leaders do?

Answer 22

political leaders instinctively act on the “authority of their own reason” rather than practical experience, it is dangerous to believe that leaders (or any human) can fully understand society and know how it should be changed

the brutal fascist and communist regimes of the 20th century are clear examples of the dangers of relying on ideology and theory, they show the misguided human rationalism

humans should not seek to perfect society based on ideology, it will only lead to chaos and harmful destruction

Question 23

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on pragmatism: pragmatism in Britain

Answer 23

British parliamentary government has developed pragmatically over time, it has not followed a rationalist or ideological path

it has existed for centuries and governs on the basis of history and experience

Question 24

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on pragmatism: the importance of pragmatism

Answer 24

pragmatism will deliver what is in the best interests of the people without overstepping the limits of public acceptance – this is because it involves learning from past experience and understanding what works best

it will maintain social stability and cohesion by emphasising moderation, cautious change only where necessary and a sense of historical continuity – this will prevent revolution and the destruction of society

it is flexible, reflecting the complex and shifting social realities – unlike rigid theories and ideologies which encourage dogmatic decision making

Question 25

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on society

Answer 25

modern society is unpredictable and complex so cannot be understood in terms of abstract principles, theories or ideologies

Question 26

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on tradition

Answer 26

politics can only be successfully conducted if it accommodates existing traditions, customs and practices

Question 27

Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 90)

views on the state

Answer 27

“The office of government is not to impose other beliefs and activities upon its subjects, not to tutor or educate them, not to make them better or happier in another way, not to direct them… the office of government is merely to rule”

Question 28

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

key information

Answer 28

Russian born American philosopher, novelist and conservative

influenced by the rise of facism and communism in the 20th century which led her to reconsider the role of the state in the lives of individuals

famous works - The Fountainhead (1943), Atlas Shrugged (1957)

key ideas…
the state
the economy
human nature

Question 29

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on the state: restriction on individual freedom

Answer 29

any attempt to control or regulate an individual’s actions corrupts their capacity to work freely as a productive member of society as it undermines their practical use of reason

rejected government welfare and wealth redistribution programmes – she believed the state relies on the implicit threat of force to ensure that people contribute to such schemes through taxation

e.g. there are punishments for not paying tax which forces people to do so even if they do not want to, thus restricting their individual freedom

Question 30

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on the state: other important views

Answer 30

opposed external coercion of the individual, known as the ‘non-aggression principle’ – explains why she rejected government welfare paid for by taxation

the state has absolutely no role to play in the economy

unrestricted expression of human rationality is entirely compatible with the free market

Question 31

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on the economy

Answer 31

advocated a libertarian philosophical system that emphasised rational self-interest and maintains that individual freedom supports a laissez-faire capitalist economy

the state has absolutely no role to play in the economy

called for a “full, pure, uncontrolled, unregulated laissez-faire” economy – she claimed that such a system was morally superior to the rest because it fully respects the individual pursuit of rational self-interest, it is also consistent with the non-aggression principle

under free market capitalism, individuals will be free to use their time, money and other resources as they see fit. We will be able to interact and trade voluntarily with others to our mutual advantage rather than being forced to act certain ways by the state

Question 32

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on the economy: key quote

Answer 32

conservatives “must fight for capitalism, not as a practical issue, not as an economic issue, but with the most righteous pride as a moral issue”

Question 33

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on society

Answer 33

endorsed a form of ethical individualism that claimed that the rational pursuit of self-interest was morally right

condemned all forms of personal altruism (the idea that individuals should put the wellbeing of other first) because it creates an artificial sense of obligation and expectation, it does not correspond with individual self interest

people should pursue their own happiness, individual happiness should be everyone’s highest moral aim

people should work hard to achieve a life of purpose and productiveness

reason provides the fundamental basis of human life

Question 34

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on society: key quote

Answer 34

“The question isn’t who is going to let me, it’s who is going to stop me”

Question 35

Ayn Rand (1905 - 82)

views on objectivism

Answer 35

objectivism was her most important contribution to political thought – she claimed that it offered a set of principles covering all aspects of human life including politics, economics, culture and relationships

“The concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute”

Question 36

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

key information

Answer 36

US philosopher and right wing libertartian

one of the most important intellectual figures in the development of the New Right

most famous work - Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974)

Question 37

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on society: self-ownership

Answer 37

individuals in society cannot be treated as things or used against their will as resources

self-ownership – a concept dating back to liberal thinker John Locke, it is based on the idea that individuals own themselves, we own our own bodies, talents, abilities and labour (we have rights to the various elements that we are made up of)

self-ownership gives people the right to determine what can be done with their bodies, talents, abilities and labour as well as the rewards/products of such labour

Question 38

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on society: what was his libertarianism partly based on?

Answer 38

his libertarianism was partly based on Immanuel Kant’s moral principle that humans should be treated “always as an end and never as a means only”

since human beings are rational, self-aware and possess free will, they should not be treated as objects or abused as mere resources

Question 39

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on society: what do individuals have a right to?

Answer 39

individuals have rights to their lives, liberty and the rewards from their labour – these rights act as ‘side constraints’ on the actions of others by setting limits on how a person may be treated

an individual cannot be forced against his or her will to work for another person’s purposes regardless of if those purposes are good

“individuals have rights and there are things no person or group may do to them”

Question 40

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on the state: what kind of state did he advocate for?

Answer 40

in his major work, Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) he argued for a rights-based libertarian system and a minimal state

the only type of state that can be morally justified in a minimal or ‘night watchman’ state – the idea that the role of the state must be restricted to preserve individual liberty

in such a state, power will be limited to those necessary and only used to protect people against violence, theft and fraud

anything more than a minimal state also undermines self-ownership – e.g. a state that regulates what people eat, drink or smoke interferes with their rights to use their self-owned bodies how they please

the state should not treat its citizens as objects to use as resources

Question 41

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on the state: why did he oppose state welfare?

Answer 41

opposes state welfare programmes funded by taxation because they are immoral – they amount to a type of forced labour imposed on the individual by the state and they treat individuals are a means or a resource to further the goals of equality and social justice, in doing so they violate the principle that humans should be seen as more than ‘things’

opposes state welfare funded via taxation due to his belief in self ownership, individuals are entitled to the products of their labour and these products should not be taken via taxation without our consent, taxation undermines self-ownership

state welfare infringes property rights because legally acquired property including income cannot be transferred from one person to another without consent – to neoliberals, taxation to fund welfare measures is a form of legalised ‘state robbery’

Question 42

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on the state: what did he believe about taxation being used to fund welfare?

Answer 42

taxation to fund welfare is a form of slavery

the state gives others rewards in the form of welfare benefits which have been funded by someone else’s labour, it gives these people an entitlement to the product of someone else’s work

this effectively means that anyone receiving benefits becomes a partial owner of the individual since they have partial property rights over his or her labour

Question 43

Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002)

views on human nature

Answer 43

humans are rational, self-aware and possess free will

neoliberals have a more positive view on human nature compared to other strands of conservatism

Question 44

Edmund Burke (quote on hierarchy)

Answer 44

“love the little platoon in society to which we belong”

Question 45

Edmund Burke (quote on tradition and the accumulated wisdom of the past)

Answer 45

“no generation should ever be so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors”

Question 46

Edmund Burke (quote on society)

Answer 46

“society is indeed a contract… not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born”

essentially, society must reflect the past, consider the present and meet the needs of future generations

Question 47

Edmund Burke (quote on change)

Answer 47

“a state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation”

Question 48

David Hume (quote on custom and tradition)

Answer 48

“custom is the great guide to human life”

we just rely upon tradition and custom to provide us with moral bearings rather than relying on abstract ideas

Question 49

Michael Oakeshott (quote on tradition)

Answer 49

“to be a conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried”