Differing Views + Tensions

Question 1

traditional conservatism

Answer 1

originated in the late 18th century in reaction to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution

associated with Edmund Burke and clearly set out in his book ‘Reflections on the Revolution in France’ (1790)

Question 2

traditional conservatism

Answer 2

defends the established order in society

committed to organicism, hierarchy and paternalism

Question 3

traditional conservatism: organic society

Answer 3

views society as a living, organic entity made up of a complex series of connections and relationships

any chnages to one part of society will affect all other parts, possibly in unforeseen and negative ways, which is a big reason why radical or abrupt changes should be avoided

if change is necessary, society must adapt and evolve gradually and naturally at its own speed through small, pragmatic reforms rather than through radical and revolutionary change - this will minimise the harmful consquences of change

Question 4

traditional conservatism

Answer 4

society is founded on tried and tested instiutions such as the family, the church and the monarchy - these institutions are held in place by custom and tradition

they are made up of the accumulated wisdom and experience of the past, so change should not be taken lightly

any changes must preserve the best features of society and be pragmatic, drawing on the lessons of history to establish practical, effective solutions

Question 5

traditional conservatism

Answer 5

ideology and any abstract theor that seeks to bring about an ideal society can only lead to disaster because humans are intellectually imperfect

drastic and swift changes lead to social breakdown and destruction, as demonstrated by the Jacobins in the French Revolution

Question 6

traditional conservatism

Answer 6

hierarchy is vital in order for society to sustain itself…

people have different abilities, talents and work ethics so it’s natural for society to reflect these differences via a hierarchy - it is unnatural to consider everyone to be equal

different people must perform different jobs and will be rewarded differently in regard to their pay and status, hierarchy is necessary to enure that everyone works together in harmony and society continues to function

hierarchy provides stability and security by letting people know their places within society, which humans need as they are psychologically imperfect and depend on a sense of stability

Question 7

traditional conservatism

Answer 7

in the late 18th and early 19th century, leadership was assumed by the aristocracy and conservatives at the time justified this form of elite rule because they believed it was natural for the upper classes to rule

for generations, the upper class has been raised to govern at all levels and have been educated on social obligation and public service, so are in the best position to rule

paternalism / noblesse oblige is another justification for this - the elite are best placed to make decisions in the interests of society, they can draw on class and family traditions

noblesse oblige is the idea that the elite and privileged have a duty and obligation to look out for the less fortunate, it is a French phrase meaning that with nobility and privilege comes social responsibility

a form of soft paternalism - the rest of society gives consent to be governed and accepts that the elite are best equipped to be leaders

Question 8

one nation conservatism

Answer 8

updated version of traditional conservatism

emerged in the 19th century in response to the development of laissez-faire capitalism (minimal government intervention in business and the economy) and industrialisation

associated with Benjamin Disraeli, who believed that capitalism encouraged self-interested individualism that undermined social responsibility and threatened to split Britain into 2 nations (the rich and the poor)

Question 9

one nation conservatism

Answer 9

if left unaddressed, this division would lead to class conflict, a decline in community and national identity and possibly even revolution

he called for conservatism to renew its commitment to reform and social obligation because by improving conditions for the poorest in society, the likelihood of large scale discontent would be reduced which would prevent revolution while allowing the uper class to maintain their positions in society

it would also increase working class support for the Conservative Party

Question 10

one nation conservatism

Answer 10

Disraeli believed that the wealthiest and most privileged in society have an obligation and a moral duty to help the poor - paternalism, noblesse oblige

organic society depends on ‘top down’ authroity as well as the elite’s acceptance of paternalism

he held that conservative paternalism should embrace social reform and welfarism to strengthen national unity and preserve ‘one nation’

Question 11

one nation conservatism

Answer 11

features of Disraeli’s one nation conservatism…

maintenance of traditional institutions

imperialism

improving conditions for the working class

Question 12

one nation conservatism: maintenance of traditional institutions

Answer 12

in speeches at Manchester and Crystal Palace in 1872 he signalled his determination to uphold traditional British institutions such as the monarchy and the church

based on the one nation conservative view that these institutions have stood the test of time and proved themselves so should be preserved

they provide stability and emphasise national identity, thus promoting social cohesion and preventing a division of ‘two nations’ in Britain

EXAMPLE = he created the title Empress of India in 1876 for Queen Victoria, linking the monarch with Britain’s sense of imperial pride

Question 13

one nation conservatism: imperialism

Answer 13

he praised imperialism, arguing that the British Empire was a source of national pride and allowed Britain to play an influential role in the world

the Empire appealled to all classes and provided a national identity to unite everyone

Question 14

one nation conservatism: improve conditions for the working class

Answer 14

introduced social reforms to forge an alliance between the ruling class and the workers

also helped to offset the negative effects of laissez-faire capitalism, thus preventing revolution developing among the working class

EXAMPLE = Artisans’ Dwellings Act (1875), Second Reform Act (1867), Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (1875)

Question 15

one nation conservatism

Answer 15

powerfully influenced conservative thinking

one nation conservatism was dominant after WW2 and post war conservative governments based their policies on this strand of conservatism

e.g. they adopted Keynesian economic policies to maintain high employment, accepted the mixed economy and supported an expanded welfare state

Question 16

one nation conservatism

Answer 16

clear link between one nation conservatism and Disraeli’s original thinking

R A Butler, a conservative minister in the 1950s and 60s, argued that government policy at the time focused on “bringing together” the two nations into a “single social entity”

this links to Disraeli’s ‘two nations’ theory (the rich and the poor)

Question 17

one nation conservatism

Answer 17

middle way approach - tried to navigate a path between unbridled liberalism (free market, capitalism, individualism, etc) and socialist collectivism (state planning, government intervention, etc)

Harold MacMillan (conservative prime minister from 1957-63) first coined the term ‘middle way’ in 1938 in his book advocating for a type of planned capitalism

in his view, this would be a “mixed system” that combined state ownership, regulation and control with “the drive and initiative of private enterprise”

Question 18

one nation conservatism

Answer 18

continues to influence conservative thinking in the modern day

David Cameron drew on one nation conservatism when he argued that his government would adopt a new “compassionate conservatism”

Theresa May did the same thing in 2017 when she called for the creation of a “shared society” that would focus on the “responsibilities we have to one another” (paternalism) and respect “family, community, citizenship and strong institutions that we share as a union of people” (bringing together of two nations)

Question 19

the New Right

Answer 19

gathered momentum from the mid 1970s, in which Western governments were using interventionist policies based on Keynesian and welfarism but were unable to combat stagflation in their economies (consistent inflation, high unemployment and stagnating demand)

arose as a rival to one nation conservatism

Question 20

the New Right

Answer 20

founded on two distinct and sometimes ideologically opposed traditions….

neo liberalism / the liberal New Right

neo conservatism / the conservative New Right

the New Right almalgamates these two ideas

Question 21

the New Right: neoliberalism

Answer 21

modernised version of classical liberalism

based on commitment to the free market economy, a minimal state, individual freedom and self responsibility

Question 22

the New Right: neoconservatism

Answer 22

modernised version of traditional conservatism

based on commitment to order, tradition and public morality

Question 23

the New Right

Answer 23

the New RIght is…

RADICAL - a term used to describe beliefs, ideas and attitudes that favour drastic political, social and economic change (e.g. it is determined to abandon government intervention in social and economic affairs and attacks permissive social attitudes)

permissive is the belief that people should make their own moral choices, the New Right disagrees with this, which comes from the conservative view on human nature and tradition

TRADITIONAL - stresses the benefits of traditional values

REACTIONARY - opposes political and social reform, favours the status quo

the New Right exhibits all of these elements

Question 24

the New Right

Answer 24

new right thinking became powerful in the USA and UK in the mid 1970s, it is popularly associated with President Ronald Reagan and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher

Reaganism and Thatcherism were political labels for their New Right perspective

Question 25

the New Right: core ideas and principles of Thatcherism

neoliberal economic policy

Answer 25

strict control of money supply through monetarism (to control inflation and therefore encourage economic activity and investment)

privatisation of state controlled industries such as gas, electricity and water (on the grounds of freedom, competition anc efficiency)

promotion of the free market - deregulation policies, particularly affecting London’s financial sector in the 1986 Big Bang

anti-union legilsation - believed that trade union power was endangering the UK’s economic competitiveness so sought to curtail trade union power

Question 26

the New Right: core ideas and principles of Thatcherism

neoconservative social policy

Answer 26

defended traditional values - supported heterosexual marriage and the nuclear family

strong law and order - supported the police and a punitive criminal justice system centred around punishment rather than rehabilitation

oppossed permissive attitudes and alternative lifestyles - e.g. section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 prohibited the promotion of homosexuality

protect public morality - government regulation of the UK video market following concerns of horror movies

Question 27

neoliberalism

Answer 27

economic problems facing the West in the 1970s (Winter of Discontent, rising unemployment, rising infaltion) appeared to discredit Keynesianism and created a more receptive environment for neoliberal thinking

promoted by the works of economists such as Milton Friedman and Friedrick Hayek, both of whom were champions of the free market economy

Question 28

neoliberalism: key neoliberal beliefs

Answer 28

a minimal state

individuals are self reliant and capable of making rational decisions in their own interests

rejection of collectivism

elimination of government intervention

Question 29

neoliberalism: the free market

Answer 29

seen as the most efficient and effective system and the only mechanism that can efficiently meet consumer demand for goods and services as well as maximise the use of resources and achieve the greatest overall prosperity

must be protected against 3 main threats; monopolies, inflation and government intervention

Question 30

neoliberalism: government intervention

Answer 30

government intervention via state planning, nationalisation and high taxation cannot solve economic problems such as rising unemployment and inflation

intervention only makes these problems worse or creates new ones, it does not alleviate problems

furthermore, it cannot properly allocate resources

e.g. Thatcher had an extensive privatisation policy that transferred state owned industries to the private sector, she believed that nationalised industries were inefficient and lacked the dynamism needed to generate profit

Question 31

neoliberalism: three main threats to the free market

Answer 31

there are 3 main threats to the free market…

MONOPOLIES - industrial or business monopolies (in which a specific business or small group of businesses are the only suppliers of a particular commodity, they dominate the market) reduce economic competition, leading to distorted prices and limited consumer choice

INFLATION - the ‘great evil’ in the market economy, any fall in the value of money discourages economic activity and investment, breaks the relationship between price level and demand

GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION - government intervention in the eocnomy is the most potent threat to the free market, state planning, nationalisation and high taxation are all rejected as they distort the market and contribute to economic problems

Question 32

neoliberalism: inflation

Answer 32

overcoming inflation and keeping it low is the one vital role government can play in the economy - keeping inflation low is vital to neoliberals

Milton Friedman believed that Keynesian polciies to stimulate demand actually create inflation by encouraging the government to print too much money or provide too much credit

his solution was monetarism, in which the government reduces inflation by controlling the money supply through cuts in public spending

both Thatcher and Reagan pursued monetarist policies to tackle inflation in the 1980s, they believed that the market could help solve unemployment

neoliberal economic policy is known as ‘supply side’ economics which distinguishes it from the Keynesian focus on demand

Question 33

neoliberalism: state welfare provision

Answer 33

welfare programmes expand irrespective of demand, these prigrammes result in higher taxation in order to fund them, rising inflation and increasingly inefficient state services

they expand due to the vested interests of professionals such as doctors as well as policiticans, who promise increasing government spending on these services to secure votes at elections

to improve efficiency, public services and other government agencies should be privatised and exposed to the competitive forces of the market economy

state welfare also creates a dependency culture, thereby hindering self-reliance and institutionalising poverty and unemployment as well as undermining atomistic individualism

it also infringes property rights by imposing high taxes to fund welfare programmes

Question 34

neoliberalism: atomistic individualism

Answer 34

advocates atomistic individualism and belives that indivdiuals are rational, self-interested and self-sufficient

although humans may be selfish, tehy are rational and entitled to pursue ther own interests, as long as they accept that others can do the same

links to the neoliberal belief in the free market which they believe is the guarantee of individual freedom - if the market is free then so are the individuals

neoliberals believe that atomistic individualism releases human potential

Question 35

neoliberalism: negative freedom

Answer 35

believe in freedom from external constraints and limitations on the indivdiaul

such indivdiual freedom can nly be preserved by rolling back the state and opposing collectivism

without government intervention, people will be truly free to act without restrctions, this will create a ‘natural order’ which will be superior to any imposed model as it will be based on everyone’s consent - there will be harmony between people

this belief in negative freedom is a reason behind their opposition to government intervention

Question 36

neoconservatism

Answer 36

can be seen as a mild type of authoritarianism

developed in the USA during the 1970s as a reaction against the reforms, ideas and permissive attitudes of the ‘liberal’ 1960s - they believed these changes threatened society with social fragmentation and could only be stopped by strong political leadership and authority

Question 37

neoconservatism

Answer 37

driven primarily by political considerations, unlike neoliberalism

agrees that the state’s role in the economy needs to be reduced

influenced by traditional conservative notions of organicism - seen in their emphasis on authority and tradition which they believe is vital to society functioning properly

more authoritanian than one nation conservatism - it seeks to strengthen society by reasserting authority and discipline rather than through social reform and welfarism

Question 38

neoconservatism: social order

Answer 38

heavy emphasis on upholding social order and protecting public morality

believe that since the social and sexual revolution of the 190s, authority and respect have declined which have lead to increased crime rates, including antisocial behaviour

neoconservatives argue for the reimposition of authority and discipline at every level of society, the authority of traditional social structures such as the family needs to be restored

hierarchy and patriarchy is natural

Question 39

neoconservatism: the state

Answer 39

promotes a ‘strong state’ and state authoritarianism, including increased police powers, harsher punishments and a stronger/tougher law and order system to tackle crime and public disorder

both Thatcher and Reagan adopted a touch stance on law and order in the 1980s - e.g. they believed that prison sentences had to provide hard lessons for those convicted of offences and they did not care to tackle the causes of crime

Question 40

neoconservatism: public morality

Answer 40

neoconservatism is anti-permissive, rejecting the idea that people should make their own moral choices, and is concerned with public morality

this concern stems from the ‘anything goes’ culture that was emerging in the West during the 1960s

Thatcher condemned such societies, she advocated ‘Victorian values’ and supported organisations such as Moral Majority in the USA that campaigned for traditional values

Question 41

neoconservatism: problems with permissiveness

Answer 41

there are 2 main probelsm with allowing people to adopt their own moral codes and lifestyles…

1) people may opt for an ‘immoral’ lifestyle, which is unacceptable, especially to the religious elements within neoconservatism
2) if people are free to choose differnt moral positions, the development of common moral standards are prevented, thus undermining social cohesion

neoconservatives are critical of multiculturalism for the same reason, they believe it threatens social and national unity by dividing society along ethnic, racial and religious lines