Key Theories and Concepts

Question 1

What is Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis, and what does it focus on?

Answer 1

Critical Discourse Analysis examines how power, ideology, and inequality are embedded in and maintained through language use in texts and interactions.

Question 2

What does Fairclough mean by synthetic personalisation, and where is it often used?

Answer 2

Synthetic personalisation is the use of language to make mass communication feel personal (e.g., ‘You deserve the best’). It’s often used in advertising and public discourse to create a sense of individual connection.

Question 3

What are Bernstein’s restricted and elaborated codes, and how do they relate to social class?

Answer 3

• Restricted code: A context-dependent form of language, often used in close-knit groups, with shared assumptions (e.g., working-class speech).
• Elaborated code: More explicit, context-independent language, often associated with formal education and middle-class speech.

Question 4

What are Martin Joos’ 5 levels of formality in language?

Answer 4

1. Frozen: Fixed expressions (e.g., legal or religious texts).
2. Formal: Structured, impersonal communication (e.g., academic papers).
3. Consultative: Professional, semi-formal exchanges (e.g., teacher-student interactions).
4. Casual: Informal, everyday conversation (e.g., friends chatting).
5. Intimate: Private language between close individuals (e.g., partners, family).

Question 5

What does Goffman mean by ‘face’ in interaction?

Answer 5

Face refers to an individual’s self-image or social value in interactions. Maintaining face involves strategies to avoid embarrassment or conflict.

Question 6

What are Brown and Levinson’s positive and negative face needs, and how are they addressed?

Answer 6

• Positive face: The desire to be liked and valued. Addressed through compliments or inclusive language.
• Negative face: The desire for autonomy and freedom from imposition. Addressed through politeness strategies like hedging or indirect requests.

Question 7

What did Trudgill’s Norwich study reveal about social class and dialect?

Answer 7

The study found that working-class speakers were more likely to use non-standard forms (e.g., dropping ‘g’ in ‘runnin’) and that women tended to use more standard forms than men within the same social class.

Question 8

What are the key ideas of Tannen’s gender theory in language?

Answer 8

Tannen suggests that gendered communication reflects different conversational styles:
• Men focus on status and independence.
• Women prioritize rapport and connection.

Question 9

What are the main points of Lakoff’s gender theory?

Answer 9

Lakoff argues that women’s language is often characterized by features like hedging, tag questions, and politeness, reflecting societal power imbalances.

Question 10

What is the difference between instrumental and influential power?

Answer 10

• Instrumental power: Enforces authority or compliance (e.g., laws, rules).
• Influential power: Persuades or influences others (e.g., advertising, media).

Question 11

What are French and Raven’s five bases of power?

Answer 11

1. Legitimate: Power from a formal role or position.
2. Reward: Power to provide benefits.
3. Coercive: Power to punish.
4. Expert: Power from knowledge or skills.
5. Referent: Power from admiration or respect.

Question 12

What are Grice’s Maxims, and how do they contribute to cooperative communication?

Answer 12

1. Quality: Be truthful.
2. Quantity: Provide the right amount of information.
3. Relevance: Be relevant.
4. Manner: Be clear and orderly.
   Breaking these maxims can create implicature (hidden meanings).

Question 13

What does Aitchison mean by pseudo-jargon, and where is it used?

Answer 13

Pseudo-jargon mimics technical or specialized language without genuine meaning, often found in marketing to sound credible or impressive.

Question 14

How does Crystal define jargon, and what is its function?

Answer 14

Crystal defines jargon as specialized language used within a professional or social group to ensure precise and efficient communication.

Question 15

What are the three elements of Aristotle’s rhetorical triangle, and how do they persuade?

Answer 15

1. Ethos: Credibility of the speaker.
2. Pathos: Emotional appeal to the audience.
3. Logos: Logical argumentation and evidence.

Question 16

What is upward convergence in Giles’ Accommodation Theory, and why is it used?

Answer 16

Upward convergence involves adapting language to be more formal or prestigious, often to match the speech of a higher-status individual or group.

Question 17

What is downward convergence in Giles’ Accommodation Theory, and when might it occur?

Answer 17

Downward convergence involves adapting language to be less formal or more regionally specific to reduce social distance or relate to a less formal audience.

Question 18

What is upward divergence, and how does it differ from convergence?

Answer 18

Upward divergence is the deliberate use of more formal or prestigious language to emphasize social distance or establish authority, rather than reducing it.

Question 19

What is downward divergence, and what is its purpose?

Answer 19

Downward divergence is the deliberate use of less formal or more regionally specific language to assert identity, create contrast, or resist conformity to a more formal norm.

Question 20

What is the difference between overt and covert prestige in sociolinguistics?

Answer 20

• Overt prestige refers to the social status associated with formal or standardized language, often linked to education, professionalism, and higher social classes.
• Covert prestige refers to the value placed on non-standard or regional forms of language, often associated with local identity and solidarity, typically seen in working-class or subcultural groups.

Question 21

What is the purpose of phatic utterances according to Crystal, and how are they used in communication?

Answer 21

Phatic utterances are used to establish or maintain social relationships rather than convey information. They help to keep communication open and build rapport, such as greetings (‘Hello!’) or small talk (‘How are you?’).