Key terms Meyerhoff Flashcards
1
Q
Variable
A
In Carolina’s powerpoint, a set of related forms all of which mean the same thing and which correlate with some social grouping in the speech community.
In Meyerhoff, principally an abstract representation of the source of variation. Realised by two or more variants.
2
Q
Variant
A
The actual realisation of a variable. Analogous to the phonetic realisations of a phoneme.
3
Q
Constrain/constraints
A
If the distribution of variants is neither random nor free, and instead shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.
4
Q
Free variation
A
The idea that some variants alternate with each other without any reliable constraints on their occurance in a particular context or by particular speakers. Now it is more common to use unconstrained.
5
Q
Determinism/deterministic
A
The idea that there is a strong causal relationship between two factors (i.e., one determines how the other will be). The idea that if you know the value for one factor, you can automatically and reliably predict the value for another. (See also Linguistic relativism.)
6
Q
Linguistic and non-linguistic factors
A
Sometimes referred to as “internal” and “external” factors, respectively. The distribution of the variants of a variable may be constrained by or depend on other factors in the linguistic system. (For example: Is the subject a pronoun or a full NP? Is the following chronological segment coronal or velar?). The distribution may also be constrained by factors that lie outside of the grammar or core linguistic system. (For example: Is the speaker talking to a close friend or a stranger? Is there a lot of background noise?)
7
Q
Regional dialectology
A
The identification and mapping of boundaries between different varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions, towns or villages.
8
Q
Principle of maximum differentiation
A
An idea that there may be functional constraints on phonological variation preventing the realisations of one phoneme overlapping or encroaching too much on the realisations of another.
9
Q
Reallocate/reallocation
A
Reassignment or reanalysis of forms in contact in a systematic way, e.g., as allophonically distributed variants of a phoneme.
10
Q
Intermediate forms
A
Forms emerging following contact between closely related varieties that fall in between the various input forms.
11
Q
Social dialectology
A
The study of linguistic variation in relation to speakers´ participation or membership in social groups, or in relation to other non-linguistic factors.
12
Q
Interspeaker variation
A
Differences and variation that is measured between different speakers (individual or social groups).
13
Q
Intraspeaker variation
A
Differences in the way a single person speaks at different times, or with different interlocutors, or even within a sentence. Intraspeaker variation is a necessary corollary of inherent variability in grammars.
14
Q
Vernacular
A
In Meyerhoff, usually used to refer neutrally to the linguistic variety used by a speaker or a community as the medium for everyday and home interaction. In some linguistic work, the term may be associated with the notion of non-standard norms.
15
Q
Index score
A
A means by which scalar variables like raising of a vowel can be converted into quantifiable data. For example, very low variants can be assigned a score of 0, and very raised ones a score of 3 with two intermediate levels. Aggregate scores across all tokens allow the researcher to identify some speakers or groups of speakers as more or less conservative/innovative than others.
16
Q
Envelope of variation
A
All, and only, the contexts in which a variable occurs.
17
Q
Synchronic variation
A
Variation occuring now.
18
Q
Diachronic change
A
Change realised over chronological time.
19
Q
Stereotype
A
A linguistic feature that is widely recognised and is very often the subject of (not always strictly accurate!) dialect performances and impersonations.
20
Q
Marker
A
A variable that speakers are less aware of than a stereotype, but which shows consistent style effects.
21
Q
Indicator
A
A linguistic variable which shows limited or no style-shifting. Stratified principally between groups.
22
Q
Group differentiation
A
A hypothesised function for language variation. Social (in which we can include regional) varieties index group boundaries. In some theories of social psychology differentiation between groups is argued to be an important basis for forming positive self-image.
23
Q
Motivation
A
Some linguists believe there are social or psychological factors which drive or motivate variation. Speakers of a language may be able to talk about the different goals, intentions or motivations that are served by using one variant rather than another, but some motivations may be subconscious and not available for such comment.
24
Q
Accent
A
Where speakers differ (or vary) at the level of pronunciation only (phonetics and/or phonology), they have different accents. Their grammar may be wholly or largely the same. Accents can index a speaker´s regional/geographic origin, or social factors such as level and type of education, or even their attitude.
25
Dialect
A term widely applied to what are considered sub-varieties of a single language. Generally, dialect and accent are distinguished by how much of the linguistic system differs. Dialects differ on more than just pronunciation, i.e., on the basis of morphosyntactic structure and/or how semantic relations are mapped into the syntax.
26
Variety
Relatively neutral term used to refer to languages and dialects. Avoids the problem of drawing a distinction between the two, and avoids negative attitudes often attached to the term dialect.
27
Speech community
Variously defined on subjective or objective criteria. Objective criteria would group speakers together in a. speech community if the distribution of a variable was consistent with respect to other factors (e.g., style). Subjective criteria would group speakers as a aspeech community if they shared a sense of and belief in co-membership.
28
Style-shifting
Variation in an individual´s speech correlating with differences in addressee, social context, presonal goals or externally imposed tasks.
29
Attention to speech
Labov proposed that the different distribution of forms in different styles was motivated by the amount of attention the speaker was paying to the act of speaking. In activities such as reading aloud, reading word lists or minimal pairs, Labov argued that speakers are paying more attention to their speech than they are in interviews, and in interviews they pay more attention than when conversing with friends and family. Contrasts with accomodation-based accounts of style-shifting such as audience design. Also contrasts with more agentive theories of style-shifting such as acts of identity.
30
Triangulation
A researcher´s use of several independent tests to confirm their results and aid in the interpretation of their results. For example, use of data from sociolinguistic interviews and a rapid and anonymous study.
31
Sociolinguistic interview
An interview, usually one-on-one, in which different tasks or activities are used to elicit different styles of speech. (You will sometimes hear it used simply to refer to a one-on-one interview lasting at least an hour covering a range of topics.)
32
Stratified
See Broad and Fine stratification. The systematic and consistent patterning of a variant with respect to some independent factor. There is a consistent order for the styles across speakers.
33
Monotonic
A steady increase or decrease in a feature along the x-axis of a graph.
34
Trend
Steady increase or decrease in the frequency of a form across a scale or set of measures.
35
Rapid and anonymous survey
A questionnaire used to gather data quickly in the public domain.
36
Probability/probabilistic
The likelihood with which a variant will occur in a given context, subject to the linguistic and non-linguistic constraints. An adjustment of raw frequencies of forms.
37
Inherent variability
A way of modelling variation as a property of the grammar. Contrasts with a model of variation as speakers´ (or a speakers´) alternation between different sound or grammar systems (see code switching). Also contrasts with the notion of free variation. Inherent variability unifies interspeaker and intraspeaker variation in ways that the other two approaches do not.
38
Overt prestige
The prestige associated with a variant that speakers are aware of and can talk about in terms of standardness, or aesthetic and moral evaluations like being 'nicer' or 'better'.
39
Covert prestige
A norm or target that is oriented to without the speaker even being aware that they are orienting to it. Evidence of covert prestige can be found in mismatches between speakers´ self-report of using one variant and actual use of another variant. Often used (wrongly) to refer to the value associated with non-standard or vernacular varieties.
40
Observer´s paradox
The double-bind researchers find themselves in when what they are interested in knowing is how people behave when they are not being observed; but the only way to find out how they behave is to observe them.
41
Participant observation
The practice of spending longer periods of time with speakers observing how they use language, react to others´ use of it, and how language interacts with and is embedded in other social practices and ideologies. A means of gathering qualitative data rather than quantitative data.
42
Audience design
Derived from accomodation theory. Proposal that intraspeaker variation arises because speakers are paying attention to who they are addressing or who might be listening to or overhearing them, and modify their speech accordingly.
43
Speaker design
A further approach to analysing style-shifting. Stresses the speaker´s desire to represent themself in certain ways. (See also Acts of identity).
44
Face and face wants
Erving Goffman´s notion of face, our social persona, adopted into politeness theory. Face wants are the desire to protect our positive face and negative face from threat or damage.
45
Negative face
The want of every competent adult member of a community that their actions be unimpeded by others. 'Don´t tread on me'.
46
Positive face
The want of every competent adult member of a community that their wants be desirable to at least some others. 'Love me, love my dog.'
47
Social distance
Do not presume to be closer to another than you are. Do not become to familiar/impolite in your language when speaking to another. Don´t speak to your superior like a family member, for example.
48
Negative politeness strategies
An action, phrase, or utterance that indicates attention is being paid to the negative face wants of an interlocutor. Often achieved through shows of deference. One type of action available to mitigate an inherently face-threatening act.
49
Positive politeness strategies
An action, phrase or utterance that indicates attention is being paid to the positive face wants of an interlocutor. Often achieved through shows of friendliness. One type of action available to mitigate an inherently face-threatening act.
50
Power
A vertical relationship between speaker and hearer in Brown and Levinson´s theory of politeness. Along with distance and cost of imposition, power determines how much and what kind of redressive action the speaker might take with a face-threatening act.
51
Cost of imposition
Modified term from Brown and Levinson´s politeness theory. A scalar measure of how serious a face-threatening act is in a particular society, and given the power and distance difference between speaker and hearer.
52
Inherently face-threatening acts
Speech acts which necessarily threaten the speaker´s and/or the hearer´s positive face and/or negative face. In Brown and Levinson´s framework, they require the speaker to decide whether or not to initiate the threat and which politeness strategies to use. Shortened to FTA.
53
Speech acts
Utterances which, in saying, do something. Questions, requests or orders, for example.
54
Bald, on record
A technical term in Brown and Levinson´s theory of politeness. Refers to an inherently face-threatening act made without any softening through positive or negative politeness strategies. Notice they do not call this 'impolite'.
55
Sociolinguistic competence
The skills and resources speakers need to deploy in order to be competent members of a speech community using language, not only grammatically but appropriately in different contexts, domains or with different interlocutors.
56
Grammatical competence
A distinction drawn by Chomsky. Competence is identified primarily with grammatical competence and is understood as the underlying or innate principle from which the structure of all natural languages derive. Performance, or what speakers do with their competence replete with errors and infecilities, is not seen as the primary interest of linguistics.
57
Pragmatic competence
The ability of a well-socialised speaker to know when certain speech acts are required, appropriate or inappropriate. A competence required over and above grammatical competence in order to successfully participate as a member of a speech community.
58
Contrastive analysis
An approach to second-language acquisition that focuses on points of similarity and difference in two varieties. The assumption is that where they differ, learners will have most difficulty.
59
Individualistic
A society that emphasises and celebrates the individual over relationships.
60
Collectivist
A collectivist society emphasises the relationships and interdependence of the individuals it is comprised of.
61
Wakimae
A Japanese term introduced to the study of politeness by Sachiko Ide. Refers to the attention paid to people´s interdependence and to the reciprocity of relationships, and, specifically, the discernment of appropriate behaviour based on this.
62
Social class
A measure of status which is often based on occupation, income, and wealth, but can also be measured in terms of aspirations and mobility. These factors can then be used to group individuals scoring similarly on these factors into socioeconomic classes.
63
Status
Max Weber´s theory of social class held that it was based on a person´s status, measured in terms of their lifestyle and life choices in addition to measures of wealth and occupation (as per Marx).
64
Cross-over effect
The cross-over effect emerges at the intersection of style and class. Typically it refers to the breakdown in the most careful speech styles of clear stratification between speakers of different social classes. For example, when reading word lists, speakers from the second-highest social class will suddenly produce more tokens of an incoming or prestige than speakers in the highest social class do, instead of producing slightly fewer tokens as they do in their conversation or interview styles.
65
Fine stratification
A distribution of variants, e.g., across groups of speakers in different styles, which shows each group of speakers patterning minimally differently from each other in each style. Shows up as small gaps between trend lines on a line graph.
66
Broad stratification
A distribution of variants - for example, across groups of speakers in different styles - which shows each group of speakers patterning markedly differently from each other in each style. Shows up as a big gap between trend lines on a line graph.
67
Change from above
Changes taking place in a speech community above the level of individuals´ conscious awareness. Able to be commented on. One variant is clearly standard or has clear overt prestige. It does not refer to changes led by higher social classes (although this might often be the case).
68
Changes from below
Changes taking place in a speech community below the level of conscious awareness. Not the subject of overt comment. It does not refer to changes led by lower social classes.
69
Hypercorrection
The production of a form which never occurs in a native variety on the basis of the speaker´s misanalysis of the input.
70
Linguistic insecurity
Speakers´ feeling that the variety they use is somehow inferior, ugly, or bad. Negative attitudes to one´s own variety expressed in aesthetic or moral terms.
71
Negative concord
A language where a negative element/constituent in a sentence requires all other infinites to also be negative has a rule of negative concord.
72
Language attitudes
The study of what people think about different linguistic varieties and how those perceptions relate to perceptions of attitudes about different users of language.
73
Semantic shift
Incremental changes in the meaning of a word or phrase. Sometimes included within the scope of grammaticalisation (or grammaticisation) theory, but unlike the classic grammaticalisation, semantic shift need not entail structural reanalysis of the word/phrase. That is, a verb might stay a verb but its meaning might be severly weakened or altered over time.
74
Semantic bleaching
The gradual loss of the most specific, contentful aspects of the meaning of a word until it is left with vague or more generic connotations only. Awesome once meant something that inspires awe, now it´s just 'good.' The pas in French negatives (ne ... pas) was once an add-on to the negative ne - 'not a step' - now it is the negative and ne can be left out.
75
Semantic derogation
Semantic shift that results in a word acquiring more negative associations or meanings.
76
Linguistic relativism
Weaker position than determinism. Holds that the value of one factor is not wholly independent of the value of another factor, but instead is somehow constrained by it. Associated with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which suggests that the way we perceive the world around us is in some way reflected in the way we talk.
77
Perceptual dialectology
The study of people´s subjectively held beliefs about different dialects or linguistic varieties. The focus on lay perceptions about language complements the regional dialectologists´ more objective focus on the way people are recorded as speaking.
78
Sociolinguistic monitor
The store of acquired knowledge that lets us detect the choice of alternate ways of saying the same thing and derive information from that choice.
79
Social identity theory
A social psychological theory holding that people identify with multiple identities, some of which are more personal and idiosyncratic and some of which are group identifications. Experimental work in this framework suggests that people readily see contrasts between groups in terms of competition, and seek to find means of favouring the co-members of the group they identify with over others.
80
Salient/salience
A maddeningly under-defined term when used in sociolinguistics. Sometimes refers to how readily a particular variant is perceived/heard (this may be due to physiological factors affecting perception, or social and psychological factors that prime speakers and make them attend to a form). Sometimes refers to a non-linguistic factor that the context or participants appear to have foregrounded in discourse.
81
Accommodation theory
The process by which speakers attune or adapt their behaviour in light of their interlocutors´ behaviour and their attitudes towards their interlocutors (may be a conscious or unconscious process). Encompasses both convergence with or divergence from interlocutors´ norms.
82
Communication accommodation
The full term for accommodation in which accomodation between individuals´ linguistic behaviour is seen as only one way in which individuals may converge or diverge from each other.
83
Attunement
A term sometimes preferred over accommodation because of the strong (but incorrect) association of the specific strategy convergence with the more general phenomenon of accommodation. Just as instruments in an orchestra have to be in tune with each other, speakers attune their behaviour to the situation and in relation to the way their interlocutors are behaving.
84
Convergence
Accomodation towards the speech of one´s interlocutors. Accentuates similarities between interlocutors´ speech styles, and/or makes the speaker sound more like their interlocutor. It is assumed to be triggered by conscious or uncoscious desires to emphasise similarity with interlocutors we like, and to increase attraction.
85
Divergence
Accomodation away from the speech of one´s interlocutor. Accentuates differences between interlocutors´ speech styles, and/or makes the speaker sound less like their interlocutor. It is assumed divergence is triggered by conscious or unconcious desires to emphasise differencce and increase social distance.
86
Symmetric and asymmetric accommodation
Symmetric accommodation means both interlocutors converge or diverge. Asymmetric means one interlocutor converges while the other diverges (can be motivated by mismatch in how interlocutors perceive their interaction).
87
Subjective and objective measures
A speaker´s perceptions of their own performances and their performance evaluated by some external measure.
88
Real time
Augustinian time. The passing of years, hours, minutes and seconds that we measure with calendars and clocks and that we think we understand until we really think about it.
89
Apparent time
The apparent passage of time is measured by comparing speakers of different ages in a single speech community at a single time. If younger speakers behave differently from older speakers, it is assumed that change has taken place within the community. The apparent time construct relies on the assumption that speakers only minimally change the way they speak after the critical period or in adulthood. A usefule method where real time data is absent.
90
Panel studies
Studies of variation across real time when participants are held constant. A panel of participants being studied over real time.
91
Trend studies
A trend study involves comparing speech from members of the same community at different points in time. Not the same people, but the same community source each time. For example, first year students at a university spanning several years. The participants may be different, but they are always first year students at the same university.
92
Critical period
The period during which language learning seems to be easiest; that is, in childhood and for some people going into early adolescence.
93
Acquiring vs learning language
It is sometimes useful to distinguish between the natural acquisition of a language variety (e.g., a mother tongue) and learning of a language variety (e.g., in the classroom).
94
Significant/significance
Significance has a technical sense, in which it is a statistical measure. The distribution of a variant is said to be statistically significant if it is unlikely to have arisen just by chance. Sociolinguists generally follow normal social science practice and require that tests show there is less than a 5 per cent chance that the distribution of a variable in relation to other factors might be simply a coincidence before they will claim there is a significant correlation or patterning between the variant and some independent factor.
95
Generational change
Each generation in a community shows progressively more and more frequent use of a variant. A change that can be inferred to be taking place on the basis of apparent time evidence is a generational change.
96
Lifespan change
A term introduced to the study of language variation and change by Gillian Sankoff. Changes to a speaker´s pronunciation or grammar that take place after the critical period can be described as a lifespan change. Lifespan changes in pronunciation appear to be severely restricted in their form: they generally only move in the direction of the community overall and they may also be constrained to certain input or starting points for a speaker. On the other hand, lifespan change is well-attested for vocabulary.
97
Age-grading
If, as a rule, all speakers of a commmunity use more tokens of one variant at a certain age and more tokens of another variant at another age, the variable is said to be age-graded.
98
Stable variable
If there is no evidence (e.g., from generational change) that one variant is pushing out another variant, the variable can be considered stable. A classic example is the alternation between the alveolar and velar nasals in the word-final -ing which has existed for centuries and shows no signs of disappearing at present. Stable variables may exhibit age-grading (i.e., avoidance of a stigmatised variant in adulthood).
99
Linguistic marketplace
A way of talking about the extent to which an occupation or activity is assosciated with use of the standard language.
100
Community-wide change
An entire group or community switch to use of a new variant at about the same time.
101
Ageing deficits
Changes in individuals´ performance in later stages of their lifespan. 'Deficits' refers to an impaired performance on tasks or activities compared with younger speakers (e.g., recall, hearing). Focused on more than improvements that are associated with increased age (e.g., narrative skill, vocabulary).
