Key Terms Flashcards
Validity
Truthfulness and meaning
Reliability
Can it be repeated with the same results?
Quantitative Data
Numerical & statistical data
Qualitative Data
Non-numerical (words and text)
Hypothesis
Scientific prediction on what a researcher thinks will happen
Operationalisation
The process of turning a sociological concept or theory into something measurable
Triangulation
The use of multiple methods to study one research question- to strengthen the argument by counteracting weaknesses of one method. Triangles are the strongest shape.
Pilot Study
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
Primary Source
Collected by the researcher from the participants.
The method will be chosen by the researcher so will fit the study well.
Can be time-consuming and expensive. Ethical issues can also arise.
Secondary Source
Sources used that are collected by other people.
Can be cheap and save time as the data already exists.
The methods/type of data may be limited or not suit the study as it wasn’t chosen by the researcher. Ethical issues could still arise (e.g. reading a diary never intended for public use) but are less.
Population
Whole group you want to study
Sampling Frame
A list of those individuals in the population, from which the sample is drawn
Sample
Those who take part
Random Sampling
Every person in the sampling frame has equal chance of being chosen.
More representative than some other methods, but randomness doesn’t ensure this.
Systematic Sampling
A method is devised to enable selection of participants.
Avoids researcher bias is choosing, but generally more biased than random sampling as not all members have an equal chance at selection.
Stratified Sampling
Population divided into groups based on social characteristics. Sample then chosen in the same proportions.
Produces a more representative sample. The grouping cannot reflect all the ways people are different, so it can’t be completely representative.
Quota Sampling
Quotas are established to determine how many people with characteristics are needed. Quotas are then filled.
Researcher can identify groups of people they are interested in and administer the method easily. Not as unbiased as natural selection - not equal chances.
Snowballing Sampling
A member of the sample submits data together with another potential member for the sample.
Particularly useful if sampling from secretive groups (e.g. gangs). Samples will be biased as someone else is picking the next sample member - this creates issues when generalising up to the whole population
P.E.R.V.E.R.T
Practical
Ethical
Representativeness
Validity
Evidence
Reliability
Theory
Longitudinal Study
A research approach that follows a group of people over time, goes against traditional criticisms of methods in that they provide more than just a ‘snapshot’ of life. They can be very useful, but very impractical, which also effects their reliability.
Social Facts
External Forces that make up a society’s social structure which influence/cause people’s ideas and action.
Official Statistics
- Part of Secondary Sources. Quantitative data gathered by the government or other official bodies.
- Collected by Registration (e.g. births) or Official Surveys (e.g. Census).
Documents
- A form of Secondary Sources - written text.
- There are 3 main types: Personal (Diaries, letters, photographs), Public (produced by agencies like Governments, Schools etc.), and Historical
Field Experiment
Carried out in a real-world setting.
Higher validity due to the natural environment which leads to easier generalising. Having less control decreases the validity.
Lab Experiment
Conducted in a controlled environment. Independent Variable is manipulated and the DV measured.
Precise control makes it easier to replicate and more reliable. Artificial situation makes it difficult to generalise to other settings (less ecologically valid).
Non-Participant Observation
- The researcher remains separate from the group they are studying, access is easier, methods are available to increase reliability.
- More objective data is also more scientific, but the Hawthorne effect is more likely and there is less verstehen
Participant Observation
- The researcher becomes part of the group they are studying.
- More likely to obtain valid results as they have gained the trust of the people, more able to study hidden groups.
- Data is likely to be subjective and biased to that group, it is also harder to record in the moment and is less repeatable - but more verstehen given.
Covert Observation
- Participants are not aware they are being studied.
- Researchers can access forbidden areas, become immersed in groups and see more ‘normal’ behaviour. But is unethical in deception and creates a danger of discovery (also hard to record the data).
Overt Observation
- Participants are aware they are being studied.
- Researcher can be honest (less ethical issues), but participants may change their behaviour as they know they are being watched - Hawthorne.
- Allows for other methods to be used to triangulate data
Enthography
The scientific description of the customs, cultures, etc of individual peoples and cultures - favoured by Positivists.
‘Research that is conducted in the natural environment of the research subject and describes their way of life’
Observations
Particular groups of people are closely observed and their activities noted.
Hawthorne Effect
Presence of the researcher affects results
Interviewer Bias
When the interviewer affects the responses of the respondents so they are different to what they’d otherwise be. Can result from many things, e.g. Social Characteristics, Leading the Interviewee, Misunderstandings.
Group Interviews (AKA Focus Groups)
Participants questioned in groups.
Interviewer can observe interactions in groups, encouraging deeper thoughts and more developed answers. Respondents may want to conform to the views of others in the group, reducing validity.
Unstructured Interviews
Informal - similar to conversation. Interviewer freedom and varied questions. Lengthy - able to probe. Able to follow up on points.
Allows respondents to direct the interview and provide more opportunity to develop hypothesis. Little reliability and time-consuming. Can lead to lots of irrelevant data.
Semi-Structured Interviews
Lists the topics to be covered - maybe some fixed questions.
Provides some opportunity for respondents to lead the interviews while ensuring main topics are covered. Lacks the specific benefits of both Structured and Unstructured interviews.
Structured Interviews
Formal - similar to a questionnaire. Interviewer restricted to agreed questions. Open/Closed questions, organised and timely.
Better reliability and less interviewer bias. But no opportunity to ask further questions - less chance of unexpected results.
Interviews
One or more interviewer asking questions in person to one or more respondents.
Open Questions
-No answers to choose, in their own words.
-More in depth data is produced and feelings, meanings, and motives are better understood.
-Data needs to be interpreted before understanding - difficult and time consuming.
-Less responses as it takes longer to fill and requires more thought.
Closed Questions
-List of possible responses are given to the respondents.
-Makes it easier to produce statistics and creating reliable data.
-No opportunity for respondents to clarify views.
-Poor when collecting data on feelings, meaning or motives.
Questionnaire
List of standardised questions given to participants.
