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Physical Geography (water&carbon) > Key Knowledge (carbon) > Flashcards

Key Knowledge (carbon) Flashcards

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1
Q

What is carbon

A
  • found in all life forms as well as sedimentary rocks, diamonds, graphite, coal, oil and gas
  • basic chemical element, along with nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur that is needed by all plants and animals to survive
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2
Q

Carbon stores

A
  • lithosphere
  • hydrosphere
  • cryosphere
  • atmosphere
  • biosphere
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3
Q

Carbon sink

A

A store that absorbs more carbon than it releases

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4
Q

carbon source

A

A store that releases more carbon than it absorbs

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5
Q

Carbon transfer

A
  • These are processes that transfer carbon between the stores. E.g photosynthesis takes carbon out of the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and converts it to carbohydrates such as glucose
  • transfers such as inputs and outputs affect the size of the carbon stores
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6
Q

GtC

A
  • a gigaton of carbon dioxide is used to measure the amount of carbon it stores
  • 1GtC = 10 tonnes (1 billion tonnes)
  • transfer (flux) of carbon within the cycle is measured in gigatons per year (GtC/year)
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7
Q

Anthropogenic C02

A

Carbon dioxide generated by human activity

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8
Q

Greenhouse gas

A

Any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere (adds roughly 16 degrees Celsius to atmosphere)

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9
Q

Lithosphere

A

The crust and uppermost mantle; this constitutes the hard and rigid outer layer of the earth

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10
Q

Weathering

A

The breakdown of rocks by combination of weather, plants and animals

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11
Q

Biosphere

A

The total sum of all living matter

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12
Q

Carbon sequestration

A

The capture of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or capturing anthropogenic Co2 from large scale stationary sources like power plants before it is released into the atmosphere. Once captured it can be put into long term storage

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13
Q

Carbon stores

A
  • biosphere = 560 GT
  • lithosphere = 100,000 GT
  • atmosphere = 750 GT
  • soil = 1500 GT
  • fossil fuels = 4000 GT
  • ocean = 38,000 GT
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14
Q

Lithosphere (rigid outer part of the earth crust)

A
  • stores 100,000 GT of carbon
  • uppermost layer of lithosphere reacts chemically to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through the soil forming process called the pedosphere
  • carbon stored in both inorganic (fossil fuels - coal, oil, natural gas, oil shale, carbonate-based sedimentary deposits like limestone) and organic (litter, organic matter, human substances found in soils) form.
  • carbon distributed between:
    > marine sedimentary rocks (up to 100m GT)
    > soil organic matter (between 1500-1600 GTc)
    > fossil fuel - coal, oil, gas (approximately 4100 GTc - 0.004%)
    > peat - dead but undecayed organic matter found in boggy areas (approximately 250GTc )
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15
Q

Cryosphere (frozen water part of the earths system)

A
  • store less than 0.01% of earths carbon
  • most of the carbon is in the soil under permafrost where decomposing plants and animals have frozen into the ground (permafrost)
  • ice sheets account for 11% of the world with 6GTc
  • mainly located in Arctic and Antarctica along wit north Europe, NA, Canada, Greenland -> also found in some areas of elevation
  • links to:
    > pedosphere (permafrost covers the soil)
    > lithosphere (many rocks/mountains covered in permafrost)
    > Hydrosphere (frozen water)
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16
Q

Atmosphere (all the gases that are around the planet)

A
  • stores 750 GT of carbon
  • sphere of storage where changes happen very quickly -> lot of fluxes in other stores in the atmosphere
  • links to cryosphere as Co2 is. Greenhouse gas, which regulatory surface temperature, meaning ice in the cryosphere may be melted quicker
  • can be stored in smaller quantities as methane which is released by ice when it melts
  • contains about 0.001% of carbon such as a small store makes it easy to be influenced by other factors
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17
Q

Biosphere (the part of the planet occupied by living things)

A
  • stores 580 GT of carbon
  • spread across all different ecosystems but it is mainly concentrated in Boreal Forests and tropical forests -> 50% of the distribution is from forests -> 19% stored in plants
  • vegetation photosynthesis: releasing carbon in the atmosphere
  • approximately 0.004% of the earths total carbon
  • transferred soil when plants and animals die
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18
Q

Hydrosphere (all the water on the earths surface)

A
  • stores 38,000 GTc of carbon
  • Oceanic stores can be divided into 3:
    > surface layer (euphoric zone) -> photosynthesis takes place (900GT)
    > the intermediate (twilight zone) and deep layer of water (contains 37,100 GTc)
    > living organic matter (fish, plankton, bacteria etc) (30GTc) and dissolved organic matter (700 GTc)
  • organisms die -> cells + shells sink deep -> decay releases Co2
  • over millions of years, chemical + physical processes may turn these sedimentary rocks -> estimates could store up to 100 million GTc (lithosphere link)
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19
Q

Pedosphere

A

The outermost layer of the earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes

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20
Q

Movement of carbon

A
  • Continuously on the move, cycling into and out of different components of the biosphere and lithosphere
  • carbon atoms do not cycle as single atoms but instead move as part of carbon compounds. Changing from one type of carbon compound to another as carbon cycles and is stored
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21
Q

Net carbon sink

A

When more carbon enters a store than leaves it

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22
Q

Net carbon source

A

When more carbon leaves a source than enters it

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23
Q

Carbon transfers (fluxes)

A

Movement of carbon between stores

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24
Q

Stores or stocks

A

The total amount of material of interest held within a part of the system. This is effectively how much of the material there is and where it is. E.g. soils are a major store of carbon within the terrestrial carbon system. Stocks are usually expressed in units of mass

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25
Q

Fluxes

A

are the measurements of the rate of material between the stores. Because fluxes are a rate the units are mass per unit time, commonly for global cycles these are expressed as Pg per year. (Pg = petragram eq. Gigatonne)

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26
Q

Processes

A

Are the physical mechanisms which drive the flux of material between stores. For example one of the key processes which drive the flux of carbon from the atmosphere to the vegetation store is photosynthesis

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27
Q

Weathering

A
  • involves the breakdown or decay of rocks in their original place or close to the surface
  • when Co2 is absorbed by rainwater it forms a acidic carbonic acid
  • through a series of complex chemical reactions, ricks will slowly dissolve with the carbon being held in the solution
  • this is transported via the water cycle to the oceans and the carbon can then be used to build the shells of marine organisms
  • more rain -> more acidic -> weathering occurs
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28
Q

Photosynthesis (atmospheric -> biospheric)

A
  • marine plants (phytoplankton) in sunlit surface waters (euphoric zone) of the oceans as well as terrestrial plants plants, photosynthetic algal and bacteria, turn the carbon into organic matter by the process of photosynthesis
  • use energy from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with water to form carbohydrates
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29
Q

Respiration (release of Co2)

A
  • from bioshperic store to the atmospheric store (opposite of photosynthesis)
  • O2 + CH2O -> energy + H2O + CO2
    -> photosynthesis and respiration are imbalanced
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30
Q

Decomposition

A
  • includes physical, chemical and biological mechanisms that transform organic matter into increasing stable forms
  • can be fast or slow - releases Co2 if it is aerobic decomposition (anaerobic leads to methane)
  • bacteria, fungi, heat and moisture will speed up the process
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31
Q

Combustion

A
  • presence of oxygen leading to the burning of things
  • released when oxygen burns organic compounds (Co2)
32
Q

Burial and compaction

A
  • organic matter buried by sediments and becomes compacted
  • over millions of years, these organic sediments containing carbon
  • may form hydrocarbons such as oil and coal
  • corals and shelled organisms e.g. take up Co2 from the water and convert it to calcium carbonate to build up their shells
  • when they die, the shells accumulate on the sea bed. Some of the carbonate dissolve releasing Co2. Rest becomes compacted to form limestone, strong carbon for millions of years
33
Q

Carbon sequestration

A
  • it is an umbrella term used to describe the transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to the plants, soils rock formation and oceans
  • both natural and human process
34
Q

geological sequestration

A
  • Co2 captured at source (powerplants), then injected in liquid form to store underground, e.g. in depleted oil and gas reserves. this technique is still in experimental stage
35
Q

terrestrial/biological sequestration

A

plants capture Co2 from the atmosphere and then store it as carbon in the stems and roots of the plants as well as in the soil

36
Q

what are the different scales of carbon cycling

A
  • plant (local scale)
  • sere (regional scale)
  • continental (continental scale)
37
Q

local scale carbon flows: the plant

A
  • trees capture Co2 by photosynthesis - converting atmospheric Co2 into organic molecules. these are vital for growth
  • trees act as biological sequestrators, storing carbon within their stems and leaves
  • as leaves, fruits and branches fall off they become leaf litter and slowly decompose. this releases Co2 back into the atmosphere. some of this leaf litter becomes trapped within the soil where it is then compacted over time and trapped
  • respiration by the plant and by decomposers then releases Co2 back into the atmosphere
38
Q

what may speed up the cycle of carbon

A
  • heat (temperature)
  • light (a lot of)
  • water
  • season
  • amount of vegetation -> doesn’t affect the rate however is important
39
Q

Sere scale: the Lithosere (regional scale)

A

an ecological community formed by vegetation succession (a sequence of changes) that relates to a specific environment

40
Q

halosere

A

salt marsh

41
Q

hydrosere

A

water/pond

42
Q

psamosere

A

coastal/sand dunes

43
Q

lithosere process

A
  • rock is exposed for the first time (e.g. after glacier retreat, tectonic uplift, raised beach or volcanic eruption)
  • vulnerable to weathering (rain has absorbed Co2)
  • rock is slowly broken down carbon remains in the remaining water
  • this, through transfers within the water cycle, goes to the other stores: atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
  • Litchens: mosses are the pioneer species
  • they take their nutrients directly from the rocks
  • carbon exchange occurs through photosynthesis
  • through time + organic matter, leaf litter is added to the broken fragments of rock
  • beginning of soil formation -> develops + can support further vegetation
  • state of environmental equilibrium is reached -> usually in response to the climate (climatic climax) (climatic climax in the uk = deciduous woodland)
44
Q

what carbon transfers are found in the lithosere

A
  • photosynthesis
  • decomposition
  • respiration
  • weathering
  • biosynthesis
45
Q

the role animals play in the carbon cycle

A

exchanging carbon between lithosphere and other spheres , decomposition, catalyst for processes

46
Q

Continental scale (geological) (cycle)

A
  • in the atmosphere, Co2 is removed by dissolving in water forming carbonic acid
  • reaches surface as rain reacts with the minerals
  • slowly dissolves them through chemical weathering. The component ions are then left in the water (carbon)
  • carried in surface waters (rivers & streams) then to ocean
  • settle out as minerals in the form of calcium carbonate
  • coral extracts calcium carbonate from the seawater releasing CO2
  • dead coral sinks to the bottom of the ocean. Becomes buried
  • becomes compacted as layers of limestone
  • tectonic uplift then exposes this buried limestone
  • e.g Himalayas -> highest peaks are formed from material that was once at the bottom of the ocean
  • tectonic forces cause plate movement to push the sea floor under continental margins through subduction (O + C)
  • these deposits are then subject to convection currents
  • rise back to the surface through volcanic eruptions
47
Q

Impact of temperature change on carbon cycle

A
  • colder condition:
    > cold rainwater can hold more CO2 -> chemical weathering is more active
    > forest coverage would be very different (geographically and in total area) -> affects the significance and distribution of processes such as photosynthesis and respiration
    > decomposers would be less effective -> carbon transfer to the soils is reduced
    > more water stored as ice -> less transferred to the oceans. Less sediment transfer along the rivers and less sediment build p on the ocean floor
    > soil is frozen over vast areas -> stopped CO2 soil transfer
  • warmer conditions
    > melting of permafrost -> releases previously trapped gases, such as methane which is now being released -> enhances greenhouse effect -> positive feedback system leading further destabilisation of systems
48
Q

Quaternary period + how was the carbon cycle was affected by cold glacial periods during the quaternary period

A
  • 2.6 million years ago to present day has seen significant carbon variation
  • would have been affected by cold glacial periods during the quaternary period the soil being frozen over vast areas which stopped CO2 soil transfer. When it cold all transfers slow down out of atmospheric to the cryosphere.
49
Q

How does volcanic activity affect the carbon cycle

A
  • returns carbon that has been trapped in the lithosphere for millions of years
  • during paleozoic era (542-251 million years ago), volcanos were more active than today -> CO2 therefore emitted into atmosphere where it remained for a very long time
  • at present, volcanos emit between 130 and 180 million tonnes of CO2 each year, by comparison human activities release 30 billion tonnes as a result of burning fossil fuels
  • volcanos also erupt lava, which contains silicates that will slowly weather -> this converts CO2 in the air into carbonates in solution. In this way CO2 is absorbed very slowly from the atmosphere
50
Q

How does earths shifting orbits affect the carbon cycle

A
  • eccentricity is the change in the shape of the earths Brit around the sun. Currently, our planets orbit is almost a perfect circle
  • there is only a about 3% difference in distance between the time when we’re closest to the sun (Jan 3rd) (perihelion) and the time when we’re furthest from the sun (July 4th) (aphelion)
  • over a 100,000 year cycle, the earths orbit around the sun changes from a thin ellipse (oval) to a circle and back again
  • though the current 3% difference doesn’t change the amount of solar energy we receive by much. A larger difference would modify the amount of solar energy received and would make pehelion a much warmer time of the yeah than aphelion
51
Q

Human causes affecting the carbon cycle

A
  • fossil fuel combustion
  • farming practices
  • deforestation
  • urbanisation
  • carbon sequestration
52
Q

How does fossil fuel combustion affect the carbon cycle

A
  • most of the worlds gas and oil is extracted from rocks that are 70-100 million years old
  • when burnt to generate energy, the stored carbon is released, this accelerates the cycling of carbon
  • when combustion takes place, reactions occur within oxygen, realising CO2 and water
  • since Industrial Revolution emissions increased
  • once in atmosphere, CO2 enhances the greenhouse effect -> increasing global temperature -> global warming
53
Q

How does farming practices affect the carbon cycle

A
  • use of artificial fertilisers is a main source of carbon emissions on farms
  • when soil is ploughed: layers invert allowing air to mix in -> resulting in soil microbial activity increasing = more organic matter being decomposed
  • as a result, more carbon is lost to the atmosphere, and tractors produce CO2 from ploughing
  • livestock ruminate (regurgitate food) and produce methane as a byproduct
  • cattle is US emit around 5.5 million tonnes of methane into atmosphere each year -> 2011 this made up 39% of all agriculture emissions
    HOWEVER
  • organic agriculture can remove the air and sequester 7000lbs of CO2 per acre/year
  • studies showed it to increase yield in drought years as additional carbon stored helps it to hold more water
  • by 2030, the agricultural sector could be carbon neutral
54
Q

How does deforestation affect the carbon cycle

A
  • when forests are cleared for conversion, a large proportion of above ground biomass may be burned rapidly releasing most of carbon in the atmosphere instantly
  • forest cleaning also accelerates the decay of deadwood, litter and below ground organic carbon
  • as a natural system, when a tree decomposes it releases carbon over a long period of time
  • during that time, ew vegetation starts to grow which compensates for carbon lost by decomposition -> this system is carbon neutral
  • if land is used for a different purpose (cattle ranching) then future absorbed CO2 is reduced -> the system has now become a carbon source rather than a sink
55
Q

How does urbanisation affect the carbon cycle

A
  • over half worlds population lives in urban areas and is expected to reach 60% by 2030
  • as cities grow land use changes from natural vegetation/agricultural land to one which has been built on
  • CO2 emissions from transport, industry and infrastructure have all increased
  • in 2012 urban areas with populations 500,000 were responsible for 47% of global carbon emissions with this being expected to rise to 49% by 2030
  • globally, urban areas occupy about 2% of the total area yet account for 97% of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions -> major sources being transport and industry
  • in 2013, global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel use and cement production were 61% higher than in 1990 and 7.3% higher than 2012
  • CO2 emissions were dominated by china (28%), USA (14%) and India (7%)
56
Q

How does geological carbon sequestration affect the carbon cycle

A
  • geological:
    > CO2 captured at its source (e.g power plants) and injected as a liquid deep underground in a variety of stores (depleted oil/gas reservoirs, uneconomic coal steam, underground salt forming or the deep ocean)
    > the ocean is very capable of absorbing much more additional carbon than terrestrial systems due to its sheer size
    > advantage of ocean carbon sequestration is that it ‘sinks’ to great depths within weeks/months of being captured at the surface. Once in the deep ocean, it is a circulatory system measured in thousands of years. If it reaches the sea bed, it enters the earths geological cycle (can be measured i. Millions of years)
57
Q

How does terrestrial/biological carbon sequestration affect the carbon cycle

A
  • involves the use of plants to capture CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon is then stored in the stems and roots of plants as well as in the soil
  • there is also the added benefit of associated wildfire habitats
  • however, a forest planted a capture carbon may lose carbon back to air through a catastrophic forest fire or in the forest suggests disease/infestation
  • furthermore, land-based sequestration plantations are slow growing and require monitoring/management which lasts the lifetime of the plantation (often many decades)
  • furthermore, the carbon within such systems is never permanently removed from the atmosphere
58
Q

the speed of flow

A
  • fast: carbon that moves within a lifetime
  • slow: movement of carbon through lithosphere which takes 100-200 million years as it released only via tectonic activity or weathering
59
Q

enhanced greenhouse effect

A

the impact on the climate from the additional heat retained due to increased amounts of CO2 and other gases that humans have released into the atmosphere since the industrial revolution

60
Q

radiative forcing

A

the difference between the incoming solar energy absorbed by the earth and energy radiated back to space

61
Q

soil organic carbon (SOC)

A

the organic constitutes in the soil; tissues from dead plants and animals, products produced as these decompose and soil microbial biomass

62
Q

impacts of carbon budget

A
  • the most important role of the carbon cycle is the release of CO2 and other gases such as methane
  • these gases absorb long-wave radiation from the earth and lower atmosphere. this enables life to exist on earth -> this is known as the greenhouse effect
  • anthropogenic activities (burning fossil fuels, deforestation etc) have increased the concentration of GHG’s, making them more effective in trapping radiation
62
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the atmospheric and global climate -> increasing atmospheric CO2

A
  • proportion is now 400ppm higher than a any change in the last 800,000 years and is set to increase further -> this has lead to enhanced greenhouse effect
  • as much as 20% of additional CO2 will remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years
  • without CO2, the earth would be old -180 degrees Celsius, although with too many earth wuld be like Venus; 400 degrees Celsius
  • enhanced greenhouse effect is causing radiative forcing
  • carbon stored by vegetation has a significant effect on the atmosphere, whether deforestation (carbon source) or afforestation (carbon sink)
63
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the atmospheric and global climate -> radiative forcing

A
  • energy is constantly flowing from the atmosphere in the form of sunlight
  • 30% of this unsightly is reflected back into space
  • the rest of this absorbed energy is radiated back as inferred energy
  • if the balance between the incoming and the outgoing energy is anything other than 0, warming (positive) or cooling (negative) will occur
  • the measure of it being out of balance due to human activities (radiative forcing) is measured in watts/m squared
  • radiative forcing has increased due to GHG emissions and changing albedos due to land use changes
64
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the atmospheric and global climate -> regional climate

A
  • vegetation removes CO2 and releases water and oxygen
  • region with dense vegetation (tropical rainforest) experience high rates of photosynthesis and respiration. This increases the levels of humidity and cloud cover, which in turn can have regional climate and rainfall
  • widespread deforestation cause areas to become drier and less humid less trees means less photosynthesis
    -volcanic ructions release CO2 along with other gases into the atmosphere. This absorbs more incoming radiation from the sun and can lead to a cooling effect
65
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on land

A
  • research is lacking and under because it has been done over a very short period of time
  • carbon cycle i responsible for the formation and development of soil. Carbon in the form of organic matter (litterfall) introduces important nutrients to the soil
  • carbon in the form of organic matter is essential for plant growth and production of food
  • valuable source of energy in the form of wood and fossil fuels
  • more CO2 available results in more photosynthesis and plant growth
  • more CO2 has also led to an increased growing season for plants
  • More CO2 has increased temperatures which then leads into increased decay of organic matter
66
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on the ocean -> ocean salinity

A
  • decrease in salinity in the deep North Atlantic
  • more freshwater being added to the ocean
  • slowing down of the large scale oceanic circulation in the NE Atlantic
67
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on the ocean -> general information

A
  • it is difficult to predict precise rates, magnitude and direction of change CO2 uptake + how it affects acidity, salinity, storminess and nutrient enrichment
  • carbon can be converted into calcium carbonate, which is used by some marine organisms too build shells
68
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on the ocean -> ocean acidification

A
  • 30% of released CO2 is diffused into the ocean through direct chemical exchange
  • this creates carbonic acid, making ocean less alkaline
  • impact on ecosystems largely unknown
  • carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in water to form bicarbonate
  • however animals (coral, phytoplankton) need ions to make their shells therefore thinner + livelihood for 500m people
  • more acidic = better at dissolving calcium carbonate rocks -> soak up excess CO2
69
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on the ocean -> melting sea ice

A
  • part of a feedback mechanism: highly reflective ice is replaced by more absorbent water. This then absorbs more sunlight which in turn amplifies the warming
  • sea ice also provides a habitat for algae. The loss affects the food chain from krill to bears
  • seals and bears can longer travel on the ice
  • huge consequences for sea level rise
70
Q

Impacts of carbon budget: the impacts on the ocean -> sea level rise

A
  • since 1990’s, sea levels have risen at a rate of 3.5mm/year. caused by melting sea ice and thermal expansion
  • increased melting of ice and drop in snowfall in shorter winters results in an imbalance -> net gain of water entering the ocean
  • about half of the past century’s rise in sea level is attributed to the oceans having a greater volume
  • if continued, oceans are expected to rise between 0.8 and 2mm per year by 2100
71
Q

what is the role of water and carbon

A
  • both water and carbon are crucial in supporting life on earth
  • as people, carbon is one of 6 important elements; stored as glucose carbon assist cellular respiration
  • in trees, the carbon content of leaves and woody matter is approximately 50%. through the food chain, the carbon stores in plants is passed onto animals
  • through respiration and decomposition, carbon is returned to the atmosphere in the form of CO2
  • the atmosphere is an important store of both water and carbon
  • all living organisms need water to survive - drinking, irrigation, power and energy
  • carbon is essential for plant growth as well as an important GHG that absorbs long wave radiation, providing sufficient atmospheric warmth for live to occur
  • changes to the magnitude of stores can have massive implications on fauna and flora
72
Q

sea ice melting feedback loop

A

sea ice melts -> dark ocean is exposed -> dark ocean absorbs heat -> increase in temperature (positive feedback loop)

73
Q

marine phytoplankton loop

A

marine phytoplankton -> produce DMS which is a cloud condensation nuclei -> more clouds -> reflect radiation -> temperatures fall (negative feedback

74
Q

permafrost feedback loop

A

permafrost -> high temps melt permafrost -> when melting carbon stored inorganic matter decomposes as oxygen is introduced -> bacteria involved produces CO2 + methane as waste product, bubble to surface and escape atmosphere -> GHG’s added to atmosphere (cryosphere -> atmosphere) (positive feedback)

75
Q

key climate change facts

A
  • global average land and ocean surface temperature data shows a warming of 0.85 degrees Celsius between 1880 and 2012
  • the rate of sea level rise since mid 1900 has been larger than the mean rate during the previous two millennia
76
Q

political initiatives

A
  • the Paris agreement (2015)
    > 195 countries adopted the first legally binding global climate deal, due to be enforced by 2020
    > aim to limit the average global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels
    > strengthen the ability to adapt to and be resilient in dealing with the impacts of climate change
    > developed nations will continue to support initiatives in developing countries aimed at reducing emissions

Physical Geography (water&carbon) (4 decks)

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