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Psycology AS > Key Approches Notes > Flashcards

Key Approches Notes Flashcards

1
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

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2
Q

What are the 3 types of reinforcement?

A

Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment

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3
Q

Why do behaviourists use animals in experiments when humans aren’t available?

A

Behaviourists believe there is little difference between the learning that takes place in animals and the learning that takes place in humans.

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4
Q

What behaviourist learning theories does Albert Bandura agree with?

A

Classical and operant conditioning.

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5
Q

What do SLT’s believe that behaviourists don’t?

A

That our mental process are important to how we learn.

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6
Q

What two ideas did Bandura add to the behaviourist approaches.

A

There is a mediating process between stimulus and response.

Observational learning

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7
Q

What is imitation?

A

The copying of behaviour that is observed.

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8
Q

What is modelling?

A

Imitating the behaviour of a role model.

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9
Q

What is identification.

A

Associating yourself with a role model as you seem to posses similar characteristics and want to be linked with them.

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10
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement.

A

The copying of someone else’s behaviour that was reinforced or rewarded.

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11
Q

What are the 4 mental processes that takes place before a response?

A

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

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12
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Learning through association of stimuli.

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13
Q

What is Cartesian dualism?

A

The philosophical stance that that suggested the mind and the body are independent from each other.

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14
Q

Who proposed in empiricism and what is it?

A

John Locke.

Suggested experience can be obtained through senses.

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15
Q

What is Darwin’s evolutionary theory?

A

The notion that all human and animal behaviour has changed over successive generations so that the individuals with stronger more adapted genes survive and reproduce.

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16
Q

Why is Wilhelm Wundt important?

A

He opened the first experimental psychology labatory. He separated psychology from philosophy and focused on studying the mind in a more structured and scientific way.

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17
Q

How can a unconditioned stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

A

Unconditioned stimulus-Unconditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus + Neutral Stimulus-Unconditioned Response

Conditioned stimulus - Conditioned response

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18
Q

What does the cognitive approach believe?

A

That behaviour is determined by our mental processes. It also ignores the fact the environment could be a factor.

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19
Q

In the cognitive approach. How do we understand why people behave the way they do?

A

By studying our internal and mental processes.

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20
Q

What makes up our internal processes?

A 
Memory
Emotions
Perception 
Attention 
Thoughts
Comprehension
Learning
Language
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21
Q

What do cognitive psychologists say the human mind is like?

A

Like a computer.

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22
Q

What is Multi-Store model of memory?

A

Attention Rehearsal

Sensory - Short Term - Long Term
input Memory Memory

           Decay            Displacement
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23
Q

What are the similarities between a computer and a human mind?

A

They both have a:

Central processing unit which manipulates information.

Coding which is converting a piece of information into another form of representation (images,perception)

Stores-hard drive (short and long term memory, sensory memory)

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24
Q

What is a schema?

A

Our thoughts and cognitive processing are often affected by our beliefs and expectations.

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25
Q

Why are schemes essential?

A

They enable us to process information quickly.

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26
Q

How can schemes lead to errors?

A

They may distort our interpretations of sensory information.

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27
Q

How are schema’s developed and what do they act as?

A

They are developed through experience and act as a mental framework for incoming information received from the environment.

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28
Q

What did Ebbinghaus find out?

A

Forgetting was greatest soon after learning.

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29
Q

Why are schema’s essential?

A

Enables us to process information quickly.

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30
Q

How can schema’s lead to errors?

A

They may distort our interpretations of sensory information.

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31
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive/mental processes.

32
Q

What does the biological approach focus on?

A

Ways in which our biological make influences our thoughts and behaviour.

33
Q

What are the two genes that influence human behaviour?

A

Genetics

Hereditary

34
Q

What are genetics?

A

A study of the genetic make up of organisms, and how genes influence physical and behaviour characteristics.

35
Q

What does hereditary mean?

A

Traits, characteristics and behavioural tendencies inherited from ones parents or ancestors.

36
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genetic make up or constitution of a cell or an individual.

37
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The expression of the persons genetic make up created by a combination of genes and environment.

38
Q

What is the difference between a genotype and phenotype?

A

A phenotype can be changed.

39
Q

What are the methods used to identify cortical specialisation?

A 
Neurosurgery 
*Post-mortem's
*Electroencephalograms (EEGs)
Electrical Stimulation 
*Scans

*commonly used

40
Q

What is neurosurgery?

A

When an area of the brain is deliberately damaged or operated on.
Commonly used to operate and remove brain tumours.

41
Q

What is a post mortem?

A

The comparing the brain of a dead person to the brain of a living person.

42
Q

What is an electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A

The recordings made from electrodes that are attached to various parts of the head. The EEG records brain wave patterns that come from the action of millions of neutrons.

43
Q

What is Electrical Stimulation?

A

A way used to measure cortical specialisation. Methods include recording activity of the neuron and stimulating an area of the brain.

44
Q

What are scans?

A

A technique used to measure the activity of the brain. One of them is a pet scan in which a radio active chemical is injected into a persons blood stream.

45
Q

What is Evolution?

A

It was Charles Darwin’s attempt to explain the huge variety of living things in a scientific way in terms of genes without drawing on religious ideas.

46
Q

According to Darwin how have all living things evolved?

A

Through natural selection

47
Q

What is the principle of natural selection?

A

To ensure that adaptive characteristics are passed through generations and maladaptive ones die out.

48
Q

What does it mean to be the fittest organism?

A

The organism that is best adapted to the current environment.

49
Q

Why is it that a adaptive gene can become a maladaptive gene?

A

Because the environment changes and this can be gradually or rapidly.

50
Q

What is a Neuron and what is its function?

A

A specialised nerve cell which communicates either with the other neurones in the central or peripheral nervous systems, or with muscles or organs in the body such as eyes or the heart.

51
Q

What is the Central nervous system and what is its function?

A

It is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain has 3 parts: The brain stem, The cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres.

It controls basic functions such as breathing and heart rate. The cerebral hemispheres perform higher functions such as vision and memory. These hemispheres are what separate humans from other animals.

52
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous system and what is its function?

A

In the PNS there are two systems.

The somatic system which controls skeletal muscles and receives information from the sensory receptors such as the eyes and skin.

The autonomic system controls essential life maintaining processes, such as breathing, heartbeat and digestion.

53
Q

How many subsystems are make up the Autonomic system and what are there functions?

A

The sympathetic nervous system which is activated when we are threatened or aroused.

The parasympathetic system which deals with normal body functioning.

54
Q

What is the endocrine system and what is its function?

A

It secretes hormones into the body through a number of different endocrine glands.

One of the most important endocrine glands is the pituitary gland. Located in the middle of the brain it is often regarded as the master gland because it controls the greatest amount of hormones and controls other endocrine glands.

55
Q

How do the Sympathetic state and the Parasympathetic state operate?

A

They operate at the same time but are in opposition of each other.

56
Q

What system does the Endocrine system work alongside to control vital functions in the body?

A

Nervous system

57
Q

What works parallel to the Endocrine system especially when in a stressful event?

A

The Autonomic nervous system.

58
Q

How is the fight or flight state triggered?

A

When in a stressful situation the ANS changes from its normal resting state to the psychologically aroused sympathetic state.

Secondly the pituitary gland releases ACTH.

This hormone causes the adrenal glands to release adrenaline into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline triggers physiological changes in the body (increased heart rate) which creates the physiological arousal necessary for the flight or fight response.

59
Q

What are the three types of neurons?

A

Sensory Neuron
Motor Neuron
Relay Neuron

60
Q

What is the sensory Neuron and what is its function?

A

Receives messages from the outside world through our senses.
Carriers information from the PNS to the CNS. They have long dendrites and small axons.

61
Q

What is the Motor Neuron and what is its function?

A

It connects the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.

62
Q

What are relay neurons and what are there functions?

A

Connects sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons.

63
Q

What protects the axon and speeds up the transmission of impulses?

A

The myelin sheath

64
Q

What are the gaps of the myelin sheath called?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

65
Q

Why do the myelin sheath have gaps in them?

A

Because if it was continues it would slow down the electrical impulses so by having gaps it forces impulses to jump across gaps along the axon.

66
Q

What are dendrites?

A

They receive signals from adjacent neurons.

67
Q

What is a Axon?

A

Where the electrical signals pass along.

68
Q

What are the terminal buttons?

A

They send signals to adjacent cells and are located at the end of the axons.

69
Q

What is the synapse?

A

The connect between two neurons.

70
Q

What is the name of the groups in which neurons communicate?

A

Neural Networks

71
Q

What is the name of tiny sacs which release neurotransmitters?

A

Synaptic Vesicles

72
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

They are chemicals which diffuse across the synapse.

73
Q

What happens to neurotransmitters once they cross the synapse?

A

It is taken up by the dendrites and the chemical is then converted into electrical impulses.

74
Q

Why is each neurotransmitter special?

A

Each neurotransmitter is special as it has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a post synaptic site (similar to a lock and key).

75
Q

What is inhibition?

A

When a neurotransmitter such as serotonin, increases the negative charge of the post synaptic Neuron decreasing the likelihood that the Neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.

76
Q

What is Excitation?

A

When a neurotransmitter such as adrenaline increases the positive charge of the post synaptic Neuron increasing the likelihood that the Neuron will fire and pass on the electrical impulse.

Psycology AS (4 decks)

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