Key Approaches Flashcards
Psychology
the scientific Study of the mind ,behaviour and experience
Objective Methods
-Researchers should remain totally unbiased in their investigations
-They should not be influenced by personal feelings and experiences
-All sources of bias are minimised and personal or subjective ideas are eliminated
Strengths of Hypothesis Testing
this is done in a controlled and organized way , altering one variable at a time
-The degree of support for a hypothesis determines the degree of confidence in a theory
Science
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation
The aim is to discover general laws
Wilhelm Wundt - 1879
-first man to be called a psychologist
-moving away from philosophy more towards science
-opened first lab - experimental Psychology lab in Leipzig in Germany 1879
-Introspection
Why was Wundt’s work significant and what was his aims
-Wundt’s work is significant because it marked the beginning of scientific psychology , separating it from its broader Philosophical roots
-Wundt’s aims was to try to analyse the nature of human consciousness , and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions
What is Introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts , images and sensations
Psychodynamic Appraoch
- Freud-1900s
- emphasises that behaviour is down to the unconscious mind
-he also develops his person-centred theory psychoanalysis and shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind
Behaviourism
-1913-Watson and Skinner
-behaviours are down to learning
from environment
-Pavlov & dogs
-becomes more scientific(experiment/repeats
Humanism
-Rogers and Maslow - 1950s
-rejecting the behaviourist and psychodynamic approach view that human behaviour is determined by outside factors
-Humanistic psychologists emphasise the importance of seldf - determismianstion and free will
Cognitive approach
-1950s
The introduction of digital computers gives psychologists a metaphor for the operations of the human mind
-The cognitive approach reduces the study of mental processes to psychology but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations
-Experiments/lab based
-SCIENTIFIC
-dominant view point at the time
Social Learning Theory
-Albert Bandura -1960s
-This approach draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning - providing a bridge between the newly established cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism
-Learning from observation - consequences of others lead to copying or not
-Scientific - lab based
Biological Approach
-1980s onwards
- begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology
-This is due to advances in technology that have increased understanding of the brain and biological processes
-VERY SCIENTIFIC - lab based
-conduct on animals -rats/mice
-genetic /hormones/neurotransmitters
Cognitive Neuroscience
-21st Century
-Cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline brining together cognitive ad biological approaches
-Cognitive neuroscience investigates how biological structures influence mental states
What did the behaviourist approach believe?
-Behaviourists believe that all behaviour is learnt from the environment (nothing is innate)
-They believe we are born as a blank slate - Tabula Rasa
-They are only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured
Behaviourists believe all behaviour is learnt through either:
-classical conditioning
-operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning
-when behaviour is learnt through association
-people associate two stimuli together to generate a response
What is an example of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s dogs - demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov (1927)
Explain Pavlov’s dogs
-Pavlov showed hoe dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that bell was repeatedly presented at the same time they were given food
-Gradually Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound
-Thus Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus(the bell ) can come to elicit a new learned response through association
Food(UCS) ---- salivation(UCR)
Food (UCS) + bell(NS) — salivation
(UCR)
Bell(CS)————-salivation(CR)
What is operant conditioning
- learning through rewards and consequences and the reinforcement of behaviour
Types of operant conditioning
-positive reinforcement
-negative reinforcement
-Punishment
positive reinforcement
-The addition of something which strengthens behaviour
-e.g praise from a teacher for answering a question right in class
Negative reinforcement
-the subtraction of un unpleasant stimulus which strengthens behaviour
Punishment
-unpleasant consequence which stops behaviour being repeated
-e.g being shouted at by a teacher for talking
An example of Operant conditioning
-Skinners Box - skinner conducted experiments with rats and sometimes pigeons in specially designed cages called skinner boxes
-Positive Reinforcement - Every time the rat activated a leaver within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet - from then on the animal would continue to perform this behaviour
-negative reinforcement - Every time the rat pressed the leaver the floor in the box became unelectrified
Behaviourism - STRENGTH
-scientific Credibility
One strength is the approach is based on well controlled research
- Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings
- by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus response units , all other possible extraneous variables were removed , allowing cause and effect relationships to be established
-For instance Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animals behaviour
-This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility
Behaviourism - LIMITATION -Scientific credibility
On the other hand research done in labs is an artificial setting and therefore lacks ecological validity (ability to apply it to everyday life
Behaviourism - STRENGTH - practical application
-One strength is the approach has practical application
the principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviour and problems
For example principles of operant conditions are used in token economy systems which have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric wards
-These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
Therefore it generates a method of control to encourage good behaviour, this is especially advantageous when managing large groups
Behaviourism - LIMITATION - practical applications
However one weakness of a token economy is it is a short term solution as the participants may have no motivation to continue good behaviour when they are not being rewarded .
This approach is criticised due to this lack of long term effectiveness and can be argued to be unethical
Behaviourism - LIMITATION
- ignores cognition
Furthermore the behaviourist approach ignores cognition .
This means it Just looks at the stimulus and the response . This is an issue as it ignores the emotions and motivations behind why actions were performed
This is a limitation as it views humans as passive responders.
Although some behaviourists will argue that they are only interested in studying observable behaviour
Biological Approach
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
What did the biological Approach suggest
All behaviour is strongly influenced by our genetic makeup and genetic inheritance .
Behaviour is not learned from others around you
-Mind lives in the brain- all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical bias
-brain = biological structure, so anything psychological is first biological
Neurochemistry
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
Biological structure
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ , system or living thing
Biological Approach features
humans have evolved to behave in certain ways that have allowed the species to survive
-natural selection - weaker mal adaptive genes are not passed on
-adaptive genes are passed on
-behaviour becomes universal - see them across cultures
-facial expressions are a wired in behaviour - exactly the same across the world
-adaptive trait in human behaviour is aggression
-past people were aggressive over - land , food , family ,children (need these to survive)
-today people are aggressive over land and territory
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
What is further evidence of behaviour becoming wired in
Further evidence of behaviour becoming wired in from the psychologist BUSS (1989)
They investigated in 37 cultures looking at mate preferences
and universal wants
In BUSS’s study what did women and men seek in their partners
-women seek men who
.physical characteristics (protection )
.money-recourses
-men seek women who
.domesticity
.younger - fertility and health
Genotype
The particular set of genes that a person possesses
.unobservable
.fixed
Phenotype
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
.influenced by environment
.height /hair colour
Biological elements in the body that can have an impact on behaviour
- nervous system:
.fight or flight response
.adrenaline
-hormones :
.oestrogen - nurturing / emotional
.testosterone - aggression
-neurotransmitters :
.Serotonin - mood and OCD
.Dopamine - mood/reward and neurological conditions
.Oxytocin-love
What can an imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain cause
A possible cause of mental illness for example low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
Whats the left hemisphere of the Brain in charge of
Language
What’s the right side hemisphere of the brain in charge of
facial recognition
Broca’s area
speech production
Wernicke’s area
speech comprehension
Research methods
-family studies
-twin studies
(measure through Concordance)
-Adoption studies
Family studies
-look for similarities
-although they are the same family they have different genetics
Monozygotic Twin Studies
Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis
-MZ twin - have 100% same genetics
-so if behaviours genetic both twins will show it
- grow up in the same environment with the same experiences
-cannot isolate the role of learning and the environment
How do we measure through concordance
-% of similarity for a trait
-higher concordance rate = more likely genetic
Adoption studies
- Monozygotic twins with same genetics grow up in different environments
if same behaviour = genetic
if different behaviour = environmental
LIMITATION - SMALL SAMPLE SIZE
BIOLOGICAL -S
BIOLOGICAL-S
BIOLOGCLA - L
Social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement , combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
What Does Social learning theory believe
-Albert Bandura -proposed social learning theory as a development of the behaviourist approach
-he argued that classical and operant conditioning could not account for all human learning
-he believed that there are important mental processes that lie between the stimulus and response prosed by the behaviourist approach
what does social learning theory form a bridge between
-behaviourism
- cognitive approach
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
The key factor is imitation
-Behaviour is then seen to be rewarded (reinforced) is much more likely to be copied than behaviour that is punished
imitation
copying the behaviour of others
Assumptions of the approach
-It combines principles from both behaviours and cognitive approaches
-It is concerned with human rather than animal behaviour
-SLT sees people as active manipulators of their own environment rather than passive receivers of experiences
-learning occurs through observation of role models
Modelling
From the observers perspective , modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model .
From the role models perspective modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
Two types of modelling
Live model -these are people who are present in our environment (teachers, parents , siblings etc )
Symbolic models -these are people who are present in the media
LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
Observational learning takes place in 4 steps:
1)The behaviour must be modelled which means it must be carried out by a role model like a parent friend or celebrity
2)The observer must identify with the role model - normally because they are similar in appearance ,gender , interests etc
3)The behaviour must be observed
4) The behaviour is imitated
identification
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wats to be like the role model
Mediational processes
cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
What are the four mediational processes
-attention
-retention
- Motor Reproduction
-motivation
attention
The extent to which we notice certain behaviours
retention
how well behaviour is remembered
Motor reproduction
The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
Motivation
The will to perform the behaviour
which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
nurture
Imitating a behaviour that has been shown by a model who you have identified with
What experiment did Albert Bandura do
Banduras Bobo doll experiment
bobo doll experiment
AIM
To investigate whether social behaviours (e.g aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation
Bobo Doll Experiment
PROCEDURE
-Bandura and Walters showed videos to children where the adult behaved aggressively towards the bobo doll - the adult hit the doll with the hammer and shouted abuse at it
One group of children saw the adult praised for their behaviour
A second group saw the adult punished for their behaviour
The third group (control group ) saw the aggression without any consequence
The children then played in the room where there was the bobo doll ad well as other toys
Bobo doll experiemtn
FINDINGS
They found that the children who observed the aggressive model with reward made far more aggressive imitations compared to the other two groups .
Boys were discovered to exert more physically aggressive behaviours than girls .
However there was little difference in verbal aggression between boys and girls
Bobo doll experiment
CONCLUSION
The experiment concluded that children are able to learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of the observation learning(through watching the behaviour of another person
Bobo doll experiment
EVALUATION
The procedure is very standardised meaning it can be replicated = advantage
High Control lab experiment means high control of variables
Cannot include long term effects in conclusion =limitation
It is argued to be quite an unethical experiment = limitation
SLT - STRENGTH
SLT - STRENGTH
SLT - LIMITATION
Cognitive Approach
The term cognitive has come to mean mental processes so this approach is focused on how our mental processes effect behaviour
Assumptions of the cognitive approach
All behaviour is down to internal mental processes - higher cognitive functions
-attention
-decision making
-manipulation in mind
-cognition is unobservable so psychologists study it indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside people minds on the basis of there behaviour
Internal mental processes
Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
Inference
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
Schema
-internal package of ideas
-based on experiences
-start out basic become more sophisticated
-mental shortcut to interpret world
-avoids people being overwhelmed
What models do Psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes
-theoretical models
-computer models
human computer analogy
what cognitive psychologists use to explain how humans understand information
input- process -output
keyboard- format/save/edit -printer
humans
Stimulus - mediator - response
environmental - cognition - behaviour
IGNORES MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Theoretical Model
set of ideas about how something works
e.g. memory models
represented as diagrams
What have models lead to
the development of AI/Robotics
which mimic human processing
Cognitive Neuroscience
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
Expalin Pet Scans
- inject with radioactive glucose
1. area with most glucose will light up’
2. suggests area being used in cog task
Broca’s area -Speech production
Wernicke’s area -Speech comprehension
COGNITVE - STRENG
CONGTIVE STRENG
COGNITIVE - LIMITATION
Psychodynamic Approach
A perspective that describes the different forces , most of which are unconscious , that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
What did Freud Believe
-IN THE 1900S DEVELOPED A THERAPUETIC APPROACH
-Promotes the idea of talking therapies
-first person to say you could be physically healthy and mentally unhealthy - physical and mental health are different
-Freud believed all of your behaviour was driven by the unconscious mind = main assumption his approach build on
Three levels of mind
- Conscious
-pre-conscious
-unconscious
Conscious
Things we are aware of
Pre-Conscious
Things just beyond your awareness but you can easily access
e.g things that emerge in your dreams
Unconscious
Trauma and embarrassment that have been repressed here
(repression )
don’t have to face/deal with them
The three parts of personalities
Id
Superego
ego
Id
-PLEASURE PRINCIPLE
-selfish part of the personality wanting immediate satisfaction
born with Id
Freud describes babies as bundles of Id
Superego
-moral principle
-sense of right and wrong
-represents ideal self ( how we ought to be
develops at age of 5 (Phallic stage )
Freud says this comes from same sex parent
Ego
reality principle
Job of ego is to balance the conflicting demands of Id and superego
uses defence mechanism’s to help manage demands of both
Defence Mechanisms
Unconscious strategies that Ego uses to manage conflict between the Id and super ego
Three different defence mechanisms
denial
repression
displacement
Denial
refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
Repression
forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
Displacement
Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
Psychosexual stages - Old Age Pensioners like genitals
1) ORAL
2)ANAL
3)PHALLIC
4)LATENCY
5)GENITAL
Fixation
stuck in a stage - Freud said in each stage there is a focus of pleasure and if you have to much or to little you will be stuck in the stage
Oral
-0-1 years
- focus of pleasure is the mouth
-mothers breast is object of desire
CONSEQUENCES AS AN ADULT OF UNRESOLVED CONFLICT :
-NAIL BITING
-SMOKING
-CHEWING
Anal
-1-3 years (children being potty trianed)
-focus of pleasure is the anus
-Child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
CONSEQUENCES AS AN ADULT FOR UNRESOLVED CONFLICT :
-.anally retentive - obsessive perfectionist
.anally expulsive - messy and disorganized and thoughtless
Phallic
-3-6 years
-focus of pleasure is on genitals
-children realize they have different genitals and that it’s a pleasure point in the body
-Freud says that children go through Oedipus or Electra complex
CONSEQUENCES AS AN ADULT FOR UNRESOLVED CONFLICT :
-narcissistic
-reckless
Oedipus and Electra complex
-Oedipus complex:
boys desire their mother and jealous of there father as he is the mothers desire and strong and powerful
-Freud says boys have castration anxiety - worried that if there father finds out there desire for there mothers that their father will cut their penis off
-resolution- boys stop desiring their mother and instead identify/internalise with their father - want to be like him
Electra complex:
-Freud believed feminism was failed masculinity so didn’t so a complex for women
-Freud viewed woman as irrational and hysteria
-Carl Young made the Electra complex which is the idea girls desire there father .
-worried that there mum might find out and that there mother has castrated them
-girls develop penis envy
-young and Freud believed penis=power
-resolution - identify /internalising mother - desire a baby
(Just their beliefs - just their interpretation meaning its subjective )
Latency
-6-13(puberty)
-no focus of pleasure
-children focsing on friendships and school
-often called calm before the storm
All leading up to genital stage which is puberty
Genital
-Puberty onwards -focus on sexual relationships and genitals in terms of sexual desires .
if fixated here you will have a difficulty with heterosexual relationships
(Freud is very bond to his time as in his time homosexual relationshisps didn’t exist)
Explain a valuable contribution of the psychodynamic approach.
Freud believed we should talk out our problems . This is called counselling . Freud is often viewed as the modern day father of counselling . He believed we need to talk about our problems to unlock our problems from our unconscious mind. He believes this is to deal with the root cause and not just symptoms . Freud emphasises the importance of childhood . He is acknowledging that childhood experiences shape adult personalities .
Explain little hans
PSYCHO - STREGNTH
PSYCHO-STRENGTH
PSYCHO - LIMITATION
Humanistic Psychology
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination
History
Humanism started in the 1950s in America and was driven by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Rogers felt Freud’s psychodynamic approach was negative and highlighted how humans were slaves to the past. He was aiming to look at the more positive side of humans and show how they were in control of their outcomes. As a result the approach focuses on the healthy growth of individuals.
Assumptions
-All humans are Driven by free will . T
-they also believed that all humans are unique individuals
-all humans are inherently good people
what did Abraham Maslow belive
-felt humans have an innate drive to to be the best version of themselves
-This was called self actualisation- which is the strive to reach the full potential
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
Self - actulized - reached or full potential
Self esteem -
Love and belonging - friends ,
Family and community
Safety and security - shelter and fire
Physiological needs - food and water
Free Will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces
Self Actualisation
The desire to grow Psychologically and fulfil ones full potential - becoming what you are capable of
How is the person able to progress through the hierarchy
once the current need in the sequence has been met
Carl Rogers
humanism - stregnth
humanism - limitation
