Key African American Civil Rights Campaigns, 1955-1963 Flashcards
(16 cards)
Little Rock Campaign (1957)
Overview
Nine black students enrolled into all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas
Orval Faubus opposed enrolment, ordered National Guard to prevent them entering
Eisenhower sent fed troops to protect
Little Rock Campaign (1957)
Significance
Demonstrated federal intervention and prompted presidential support
Highlighted extent of racism in Southern states - backlash from local govenor - political conflict between states and fed gov
Generated media attention - sympathy
Greensboro’ Sit Ins (1960)
Overview
Students in Greensboro’ North Carolina
Campaign to let black Americans be served at lunch counters in Woolworths stores
Sat at ‘whites-only’ seats + refused to leave
27 on 2nd day, 3000 by 4th
6 more states with over 70,000 people
Woolworth’s profits dropped by a third, forced to desegregate
Helped to create Students Non-Violent Co-ordianting Committee (SNCC)
Greensboro’ Sit Ins (1960)
Significance
Demonstrated economic power of African Americans
Generated mass support from black + white citizens - credibility
Led to creation of SNCC - mobilised students
Widespread campaigning across other states
Remained non-violent
Freedom Rides (1961)
Overview
Black + white students from Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) travelled from north to south refusing to segregate
Testing Boynton v Virginia ruling (1960) - outlawed segregation on interstate buses
Faced violence from KKK + fire bombed
Bull Connor refused to give protection, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent fed troops to protect riders
Freedom Rides (1961)
Significance
Unity of protestors
Federal intervention used in the face of violence - need for concrete legislation, and local services to uphold existing laws
Desegregation of buses - de facto change
Protestors adopted moral high ground - credibility
James Meredith + University of Mississippi (1962)
Overview
First black student at University of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, Governor of Mississippi, refused to allow him to enrol
Supreme Court backed Meredith, President Kennedy put pressure on Barnett, he relented
However didn’t provide protection, faced mob of white protestors
Kennedy sent fed troops to protect him
James Meredith + University of Mississippi (1962)
Significance
Federal support was crucial in challenging violent backlash in Mississippi
Demonstrated conflict between Southern opposition to desegregation/de facto change
Determination of individual activists to challenge ingrained racism
Birmingham Campaign (1963)
Set-Up
Birmingham, Alabama - 10% registered to vote, NAACP banned
Police Chief ‘Bull’ Connor would react violently - campaign would generate media attention
SCLC advocated recruiting students
3rd May - high pressure fire hoses, 1,300 black children imprisoned
Birmingham Campaign (1963)
Reaction
Media frenzy
President John F. Kennedy said he was sickened by images of police violence, publically declared support for Civil Rights bill
Soviet media devoted 1/5 of radio time for protest
Birmingham Campaign (1963)
End of Campaign
Violent tactics a turning point
5th May - negotiations between SCLC and authorities
Kennedy sent assistant Attorney General to mediate
Led to reforms: civil rights protestors released without charge, large department stores desegregated, and racial discrimination in employment to be ended
Birmingham Campaign (1963)
Significance
Gained significant media attention - amplifying civil rights aims
De jure and de facto change
Fed intervention to challenge police violence
Protestors maintained moral high ground even when arrested - supported credibility
March on Washington (1963)
Overview
SCLC, SNCC, CORE, and NAACP organised march on Washington to pressure Congress
August 1963, 250,000 people gathered at Lincoln Memorial in peaceful march
Approximately 20% white, including Hollywood stars - indicated pop support for civil rights legislation
Speeches given by leaders - ‘I Have a Dream’ speech
March on Washington (1963)
Significance
Gained white support - speeched had emotional impact + non-violent
Unified movement - SCLC, SNCC, CORE + NAACP
Pressure on fed gov - numbers
Media coverage - widely publicised
Summary
Successes by 1963
Growing momentum - de jure change effective
Growing white support + political power
Increased media attention - particulary Birmingham
Summary
Ongoing Challenges by 1963
Still limited de facto change in the South - racist attitudes
Federal support only came after violence - performative?
Change was slow
