Kennedy pressure for change Flashcards
Reason for Freedom rides. When?
Spring 1961. CORE tried to repeat their 1947 Journey of Reconciliation as long distance bus services were still segregated. If they made it they’d prove progress, if not the president would have to confront the issue of civil rights
People in freedom rides
Originally 13 riders, 7 black, 6 white led by James Farmer. When ICC considering 60 more rides with 300 people, 75% male
Places of violence in freedom rides
Anniston and Birmingham, Alabama
Anniston freedom rides
mob of 200 whites
tires blew out, bomb thrown inside bus, riders escaped but were met by the mob and brutally beaten
Birmingham freedom rides
Riders beaten, some with metal pipes. Bull Connor said he knew riders were coming but posted no police protection at the station because it was mother’s day
Successes of freedom rides
gained significant media coverage and international attention, Bobby’s support made JFK look supportive- got the administration involved. ICC issued instructions ending segregation Nov 1961
Public opinion on freedom rides
1961 poll 63% Americans opposed
Bobby Kennedy freedom rides
Called for a cooling off period but riders continued. Forced Gov of Alabama to protect riders and struck similar deals with Mississippi and Louisiana. Demanded the Interstate Commerce Commission enforce their own 1955 desegregation ruling. Sent 600 federal marshals to Montgomery
Beginning of Albany campaign
1961 3 activists went after success of SNCC sit ins. Targeted restaurants as well as libraries, parks, buses
Local police chief Albany
Laurie Pritchett. Noticed provoking violence led to media attention and presidential involvement. Instructed officers to police marchers fairly and protect demonstrators and to contact local jails in a 40 mile radius to separate protesters and ensure jail space. Also treat King with considerable care
Kings involvement in Albany
unproductive because of divisions (SNCC resented SCLC, local leaders resented ‘outsiders’, some black people were paid informants to the city leadership). King brought media attention. Was arrested and an ‘anonymous’ person paid his bail- it was Pritchett, doesn’t give MLK bad experience and is disliked for special treatment
Albany campaign deal
If King left, city would comply with ICC ruling and release protestors on bail. City failed to uphold agreement and protests continued in 1962
Protesters jailed Albany
By Dec 1961, 500
ICC ruling impact on Albany
9 students from Albany State College put it to the test and weren’t arrested. Inspired local black leaders to found the Albany campaign
Why Birmingham?
rival orgs relatively inactive there, SCLC needed a success, it was ‘by far’ Americas ‘worst big city’ for racism, white divisions looked promising- white businessmen believed racism held city back, extremists had recently castrated an African-American
Bill Connor
Public Safety Commissioner Birmingham. Determined segregation with a short fuse
First Birmingham protest
Connor released police dogs on the few marchers. King was arrested and put in solitary confinement and used toilet paper to write ‘letter from Birmingham jail’. Coretta called JFK to obtain his release
Second Birmingham protest
Still lacked support so King enlisted black schoolchildren, some as young as 6. Highly successful strategy, hit national headlines as Connors high pressure water hoses tore clothes off students. 500 young marchers in custody and SCLC achieved aim of ‘filling the jails’ with 2000 protestors. Black and whites resorted to violence and Birmingham descended into chaos
Ruby Bridges
Nov 14th 1960 went to a white school in New Orleans escorted by marshalls past angry mobs. All but one teacher refused to teach her and all the students in her class pulled out
James Meredith
rejected from Uni of Mississippi so obtained legal support from NAACP. Enrolled 1st Oct 1962, Bobby sent 500 marshals who were ill-equipped and clashed with a white mob. 2 shot, 1/3 marshals injured. JFK sent Mississippi National Guard and US army regulars
George Wallace
elected Governor of Alabama 1963, initially ran as a moderate then lost so ran as a racist. ‘segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever’
Ability to help minorities in congress
Kennedy holds small majority and has dixiecrats in his own party. Congress responded to wants of electorate, Civil Rights wasn’t high on the list
Women’s movement
Betty Friedan wrote Feminine Mystique 1963. Early 60s 80% teachers women, 10% principles, 7% doctors, 3% lawyers. 6 states said women couldn’t enter financial agreements without male signature
March on Washington
28th August 1963 250,000 marchers. Co-organised by ‘big 6’ leaders. Goals was to increase pressure on administration to go ahead with CR legislation and highlight econ prejudice
