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Biology (Elliott) > Keeping healthy and life on earth > Flashcards

Keeping healthy and life on earth Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ‘the metabolic rate’?

A

The speed at which chemical reactions take place in our bodies or how quickly we burn through energy given to us in food.

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2
Q

After you have exercised what happens to your metabolic rate?

A

It gets faster for a small period of time

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3
Q

What is one of the defensive functions of white blood cells?

A

One of the functions of white blood cells is to ingest and destroy pathogens.

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4
Q

what do antibodies do to protect your body

A

Antibodies can lock onto antigens by adapting to the right shape after experiencing an attack from a specific type of them.

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5
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

A disease-causing microorganism.

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6
Q

One of the main problems with viruses is that they…

A

damage the host cell when they reproduce

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7
Q

what is one of the main problems with bacteria?

A

They produce toxins.

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8
Q

What is a vaccination?

A

A vaccination is when a small amount of a specific pathogen is injected into the body to “train” the body up to fight a bigger quantity of that pathogen.

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9
Q

how do antibiotics work?

A

antibiotics are a specific type of poison for one kind of bacteria each. they target just that bacteria so they don’t damage your cells.

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10
Q

What is the main reason why we should be careful not to overuse antibiotics?

A

Dangerous strains of resistant bacteria may develop by natural selection and then you would end up with all your bacteria being immune to the antibiotics.

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11
Q

There is no vaccine against the common cold because…

A

the cold virus mutates too quickly for a vaccine to be effective

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12
Q

why did we evolve to stand on two legs?

A

so predators and prey could be seen more easily

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13
Q

what is the eye an example of?
A. Receptor
B. Stimulus
C. Effector

A

A. Receptor

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14
Q

What is a bee sting an example of?
A. Receptor
B. Stimulus
C. Effector

A

B. Stimulus

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15
Q

What is a muscle an example of?
A. Receptor
B. Stimulus
C. Effector

A

C. Effector

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16
Q

List the steps of a reflex action in order.

A

step 1. Stimulus, in the form of heat (e.g hot candle) stimulates the pain receptor (skin) on contact.

step 2. The signal is sent along the sensory neuron

step 3. The signal is passed on to the relay neuron. (this is where your brain would receive the message and you would feel pain.)

step 4. The relay neuron passes the message to the motor neuron.

step 5. The motor neuron tells the effector to do something. (in this case the bicep muscle is the effector and it is being told to contract away from the stimulus)

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17
Q

In which vessels is blood pressure greatest?

A

Blood pressure is greatest in arteries.

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18
Q

what do the coronary arteries do?

A

Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with blood.

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19
Q

Our bodies take in water from food and drinks. We even get some water when we respire by ………. ………… … …………. ………..

A

Our bodies take in water from food and drinks. We even get some water when we respire by burning glucose to release energy.

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20
Q

For the cells of our body to work properly, it is important that their water content is maintained at the correct level. Which organ does this?

A

For the cells of our body to work properly, it is important that their water content is maintained at the correct level. This means our body must maintain a balance between the water we take in and the water we lose. This is done by the kidneys.

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21
Q

Which Drugs affect water balance?

A

Alcohol and

Ecstasy

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22
Q

How does Alcohol causes dehydration?

How does Ecstasy affect hydration?

A

Alcohol causes the kidneys to produce a greater volume of more dilute urine. This can lead to dehydration.
Ecstasy causes the kidneys to produce a smaller volume of less dilute urine. This can result in the body having too much water.

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23
Q

Which hormone controls the concentration of urine?

A

The concentration of our urine is controlled by a hormone called ADH.

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24
Q

What is ADH?

A

The concentration of our urine is controlled by a hormone called ADH.
ADH is produced by the pituitary gland that is situated just below the brain. The pituitary gland monitors the concentration of the blood plasma. It releases ADH into the bloodstream, which travels in the blood to the kidneys.

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25
Q

what happens when ADH reaches the kidneys?

A

The more concentrated the plasma, the more ADH is released into the blood. When the ADH reaches the kidneys, it causes them to reabsorb more water. This keeps more water in the body and produces more concentrated urine.
When the plasma is more dilute, less ADH is released into the bloodstream. This allows more water to leave the kidneys, producing more dilute urine.

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26
Q

Blood carries ….. and ………. to the body’s cells, and waste products away from them.

A

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells, and waste products away from them.

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27
Q

what is the role of blood?

A

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells, and waste products away from them.

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28
Q

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells, and waste products away from them. The circulatory system consists of WHAT?

A

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body’s cells, and waste products away from them. The circulatory system consists of VEINS, arteries, heart, blood vessels

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29
Q

what are Veins?

A

Veins
The blood in veins is under lower pressure than the blood in arteries. The veins have:
thin walls
thin layers of muscle and elastic fibres.

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30
Q

Unlike …….., veins have one-way ……. in them to keep the blood moving in the………………..direction.

A

Unlike arteries, veins have one-way valves in them to keep the blood moving in the correct direction.

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31
Q

Do arteries have one-way valves in them ?

A

no

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32
Q

The muscle cells in the heart need a constant supply of ……… …. …………, and for their ……… ……… to be removed. So the heart requires its own blood supply in order to keep beating.

A

The muscle cells in the heart need a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, and for their waste products to be removed. So the heart requires its own blood supply in order to keep beating.

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33
Q

Blood vessels called the …………. ………….. supply blood to the heart muscles. If they become …………, a heart attack can happen.

A

Blood vessels called the coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscles. If they become blocked, a heart attack can happen.

34
Q

heart attacks

A heart attack can happen because:

A

Fatty deposits build up in the coronary arteries
A blood clot can form on a fatty deposit
The blood clot can block a coronary artery
Some heart muscle cells do not get the oxygen and nutrients they need
These cells start to die.

35
Q

In the UK how manu people have a heart attack every year?

A

In the UK about 300,000 people have a heart attack every year.

36
Q

The body’s first line of defence against harmful pathogens is the …….and ………., the second is ………. ………….

A

The body’s first line of defence against harmful pathogens is the skin and stomach acid, the second is white blood cells.

37
Q

what are Pathogens?

A

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease. Bacteria and viruses are the main pathogens

38
Q

what are the main pathogens

A

bacteria and viruses

39
Q

Bacteria come in many shapes and sizes, but even the largest are only /.………………………………

A

Bacteria come in many shapes and sizes, but even the largest are only ten micrometres long (ten-millionths of a metre).

40
Q

what are Bacteria ?

A

Bacteria are living cells and can multiply rapidly in favourable conditions. Once inside the body, they release poisons or toxins that can make us feel ill.

41
Q

what are Viruses ?

A

Viruses are many times smaller than bacteria. They are among the smallest organisms known, consisting of a fragment of genetic material inside a protective

42
Q

Viruses can only reproduce ……. host cells, damaging them when they do so. Once inside, they ……. ……… the cell and make hundreds of thousands of ……….of themselves. Eventually, the virus copies fill the whole host cell and it ………… The viruses then pass out through the bloodstream, the airways, or by other routes.

A

Viruses can only reproduce inside host cells, damaging them when they do so. Once inside, they take over the cell and make hundreds of thousands of copies of themselves. Eventually, the virus copies fill the whole host cell and it bursts open. The viruses then pass out through the bloodstream, the airways, or by other routes.

43
Q

viruses pass out through the bloodstream, the airways, or by other routes. what are they?

A

skin
chemicals in tears
chemicals in sweat
stomach acid.

44
Q

The body’s first line of defence is called ………. immunity, which means ?

A

The body’s first line of defence is called passive immunity, which means preventing the pathogen from entering in the first place

45
Q

White blood cells can do 3 main things:

A

White blood cells can:
ingest pathogens and destroy them
produce antibodies to destroy pathogens
produce antitoxins that neutralise the toxins released by pathogens.

46
Q

what are Memory cells?

A

Memory cells are a type of white blood cell that can respond quickly when it meets a microorganism for the second time. They produce the right antibody for the particular microorganism and destroy it before you feel unwell. This is described as being immune to a disease

47
Q

On average an adult human will catch ……. … …….colds every year, and a child will catch ……. …….. (because their immune system is still developing.

A

On average an adult human will catch two to four colds every year, and a child will catch even more (because their immune system is still developing.

48
Q

Antibiotics are used to treat ……. infections. Bacteria can ………….. and become ………… … antibiotics. This is one reason why new drugs are constantly being developed.

A

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. Bacteria can mutate and become resistant to antibiotics. This is one reason why new drugs are constantly being developed.

49
Q

Vaccination involves putting a small amount of an inactive form of a …….. into the body. Vaccines can contain what?

These all act as ………. When injected into the body, they stimulate ……… ……….. …….. to produce antibodies to fight the pathogen.

A

Vaccination involves putting a small amount of an inactive form of a pathogen into the body. Vaccines can contain:
1) live pathogens treated to make them harmless
2) harmless fragments of the pathogen
3) toxins produced by pathogens
4) dead pathogens.
These all act as antigens. When injected into the body, they stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies to fight the pathogen.

50
Q

Sometimes more than one vaccine is given at a time, like the MMR triple vaccine against…….. …………….. ……………….

A

Vaccinations in early childhood can offer protection against many serious diseases. Sometimes more than one vaccine is given at a time, like the MMR triple vaccine against mumps, measles and rubella.

51
Q

Some common diseases like influenza (flu) and the common cold are caused by …….. These ……. quickly, and this changes their surface proteins. This makes it almost impossible to develop a permanent vaccine against them. A new flu vaccine has to be developed ………… …….. after the strain has been analysed.

A

Some common diseases like influenza (flu) and the common cold are caused by viruses. These mutate quickly, and this changes their surface proteins. This makes it almost impossible to develop a permanent vaccine against them. A new flu vaccine has to be developed every year, after the strain has been analysed.

52
Q

vaccinations can never be completely safe because side-effect levels vary. So, when making a decision, what are some of the factors that should be considered:

A

vaccinations can never be completely safe because side-effect levels vary. So, when making a decision, these are some of the factors that should be considered:

  1. when fewer people are vaccinated, the number of cases of the disease increases
  2. the chance of falling seriously ill or dying from the disease may be far greater than the chance of experiencing a serious side-effect
  3. using a vaccine may be much cheaper than treating a very ill person.
53
Q

With respect to vaccination policies, you need to be able to:
Clearly state the ………..
Summarise different ………… that might be held.
Identify and develop arguments based on the idea that the ……… decision is the one that leads to the ……… ………for the majority of people.
Identify and develop arguments based on the idea that certain actions are very………. to justify because they are considered ……………. or wrong.

A

With respect to vaccination policies, you need to be able to:
Clearly state the issue. For example, is the risk of suffering side-effects from the vaccination greater or less than the risk of catching the disease?
Summarise different views that might be held. For example, some people used to think there was a risk of children developing autism when they had the MMR vaccine. Other people thought the MMR vaccine was safe and there was no risk of developing autism.
Identify and develop arguments based on the idea that the right decision is the one that leads to the best outcome for the majority of people. For example, even though there may be a slight risk from being vaccinated, society as a whole will benefit because it will help to reduce the risk of the disease being passed on to other people.
Identify and develop arguments based on the idea that certain actions are very hard to justify because they are considered unnatural or wrong. For example, most people think governments should not pass laws making vaccination compulsory, because that would take away our human right to freedom of choice

54
Q

How do you prevent an epidemic.

A

The more infectious the disease, the higher the proportion of the population that must be vaccinated to prevent the epidemic.

55
Q

With respect to vaccination policies, you need to be able to distinguish what can be done, ie what is technically feasible, from …….. ………… … …….. For example, smallpox is the only disease that has been eradicated from the planet by vaccination. This was possible because smallpox is spread by ………. ………., and not through the ……

A

With respect to vaccination policies, you need to be able to distinguish what can be done, ie what is technically feasible, from what should be done. For example, smallpox is the only disease that has been eradicated from the planet by vaccination. This was possible because smallpox is spread by direct contact, and not through the air.

56
Q

it is sometimes possible to vaccinate enough people in the world to completely…… the disease from ……………………

A

This made it possible to vaccinate enough people in the world to completely stop the disease from spreading

57
Q

What are Antibiotics?

A

Antibiotics are substances that kill bacteria or prevent their growth.

58
Q

The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered by ……….in what year?

A

The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He noticed that some bacteria he had left in a Petri dish had been killed by naturally occurring penicillium mould.

59
Q

How did alexander fleming discover penicillin ?

A

He noticed that some bacteria he had left in a Petri dish had been killed by naturally occurring penicillium mould.

60
Q

Do Antibiotics work against viruses?

A

No

61
Q

why Do Antibiotics not work against viruses?

A

It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without damaging the body’s tissues.

62
Q

Over time, bacteria can become resistant to certain antibiotics: this is an example of …………what happens?

A

Over time, bacteria can become resistant to certain antibiotics: this is an example of natural selection. In a large population of bacteria, there may be some that are not affected by the antibiotic. These survive and reproduce, creating more bacteria that are not affected by the antibiotic.

63
Q

What does MRSA stand for? Why is it dangerous?

A

MRSA is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It is resistant to most antibiotics

64
Q

Tuberculosis (TB), is a disease caused by what bacterium ?

A

Tuberculosis (TB), is a disease caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

65
Q

Those who show symptoms of TB need a course of several antibiotics at once. why?

A

This is to reduce the chance of strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

66
Q

The main steps in the development of resistance are:

A

Random changes or mutations occur in the genes of individual bacterial cells
Some mutations protect the bacterial cell from the effects of the antibiotic
Bacteria without the mutation die or cannot reproduce with the antibiotic present
The resistant bacteria are able to reproduce with less competition from normal bacterial strains

67
Q

TB infected people without symptoms are usually given one or two courses of antibiotic.

A

innfected people without symptoms are usually given a course of one antibiotic.

68
Q

Do infected people do not show symptoms of TB ?

A

Most people who are infected do not show any symptoms.

69
Q

How many per cent go on to develop serious symptoms of TB: including shortness of breath, coughing, fever and even death.

A

But about 10 per cent go on to develop serious symptoms including shortness of breath, coughing, fever and even death.

70
Q

Certain drugs can be extracted from natural sources and their existence has been recognised for a long time. For example, ……………was used by the ancient Greeks to help cure …………………… It was later discovered that the active ingredient was …………………… This was modified by chemists into the substance we call aspirin, which is less irritating to the stomach than salicylic acid.

A

Certain drugs can be extracted from natural sources and their existence has been recognised for a long time. For example, willow bark was used by the ancient Greeks to help cure fevers and pains. It was later discovered that the active ingredient was salicylic acid. This was modified by chemists into the substance we call aspirin, which is less irritating to the stomach than salicylic acid.

71
Q

Three stages of testing drugs
New medical drugs have to be tested to ensure that they work, and are safe, before they can be prescribed. There are three main stages of testing. what are they?

A

Three stages of testing drugs
1 The drugs are tested using computer models and human cells grown in the laboratory. Many substances fail this test because they damage cells or do not seem to work.
2. Drugs that pass the first stage are tested on animals. In the UK, new medicines have to undergo these tests. But it is illegal to test cosmetics and tobacco products on animals. A typical test involves giving a known amount of the substance to the animals, then monitoring them carefully for any side-effects.
3, Drugs that have passed animal tests are used in clinical trials. They are tested on healthy volunteers to check they are safe. The substances are then tested on people with the illness to ensure they are safe and that they work.

72
Q

drug trials are not without risk. Sometimes severe and ……………side-………….occur.
Most substances do not pass all of the tests and trials, so drug development is expensive and takes a long time.

A

Medical drug trials are not without risk. Sometimes severe and unexpected side-effects occur.
Most substances do not pass all of the tests and trials, so drug development is expensive and takes a long time.

73
Q

There are three main types of clinical trial:

A

There are three main types of clinical trial: ‘blind’, ‘double-blind’ and ‘open-label’.

74
Q

How do blind and double-blind trials work?

A

In blind and double-blind trials one group of volunteers, called the test group, receives the new drug.Another, the control group, receives the existing drug for that illness. If there is no existing treatment, the control group is given a fake drug that has no effect on the body. This is called a placebo. The researchers look for differences between the experimental group and the control group.

75
Q

what is a Blind trials and what is the problem with it?

A

Blind trials
In a blind trial, the volunteers do not know which group they are in but the researchers do. The problem is the researchers may give away clues to the volunteers without realising it. This is called observer bias; it can make the results unreliable.

76
Q

what is a Double-blind trials?

A

Double-blind trials
In a double-blind trial, the volunteers do not know which group they are in, and neither do the researchers, until the end of the trial.

77
Q

what is an Open-label trials

A

In an open-label trial the patient and doctor both know the treatment. This type of trial happens when there is no other treatment and the patients are so ill that doctors believe they will not recover from their illnesses.

78
Q

WHy do doctors not like giving a placebo to patients with a disease ?

A

Many doctors do not like giving a placebo to patients with a disease because they feel the patient will not benefit from taking a fake drug and will not get better. They do not think this is fair to the patient.

79
Q

ADH is produced by the …… gland that is situated just below the…… The pituitary gland monitors the c…………….. … ……. …….. ……….. It releases ADH into the ………………, which travels in the …………. to the ………..

A

ADH is produced by the pituitary gland that is situated just below the brain. The pituitary gland monitors the concentration of the blood plasma. It releases ADH into the bloodstream, which travels in the blood to the kidneys.

80
Q

What are the advantage and disadvantage of double-blind trials

A

it removes the chance of bias and makes the results more reliable. But double-blind trials are more complex to set up.

81
Q

Vaccination involves what ?

A

Vaccination involves exposing the body’s immune system to a weakened or harmless version of the pathogen in order to stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies.

Biology (Elliott) (7 decks)

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