Kaplan Txtbk (mostly Ch.8-12) Flashcards
Social Facilitation
individuals tend to perform at a different level when others are around
Deindividuation
loss of self-awareness in large groups (or due to other factors)
Bystander Effect
when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need
Group Polarization
the tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than any one individual would
Groupthink
the tendency of a group to make decisions based on the ideas that arise within the group, without considering outside ideas - may affect ethics b/c pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group
(the 8 factors that are indicative of group think are on p.299)
Assimilation
a group or individual’s culture begins to melt into another culture
- can be slowed by the creation of ethnic enclaves: locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity
Multiculturalism
the encouragement of multiple cultures in a community - enhances diversity
Subcultures
a group of individuals within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
- can lead to the case of counterculture: when the subculture deliberately opposes the norms of the prevailing culture
Socialization
the process of developing and spreading norms (boundaries of acceptable behavior), customs, and beliefs - remember Primary vs. Secondary on p. 305
Stigma
extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on their perceived differences from the rest of society
Deviance
any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society
Conformity vs. Compliance
Conformity (aka the majority influence) - changing beliefs/behaviors to fit into a group
Compliance - changing behavior based on the direct requests of others (remember the foot-in-the-door, the door-in-the-face, the lowball, and the that’s-not-all techniques)
Functional Attitudes Theory
there are 4 functional areas of attitudes that serve individuals in life
- knowledge (knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior)
- ego expression
- adaptability (socially acceptable attitudes)
- ego defense
Elaboration Likelihood Model
attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of elaboration => central vs. peripheral (shallow) route processing
- message characteristics
- source characteristics
- target characteristics (of the listener - especially important factor)
Social Cognitive Theory
attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors, and environment
the “real” self vs. the “ideal” self
who I am vs. who I want to be, respectively
Michelangelo phenomenon
the ideal self can be “sculpted” with help from others
Social Loafing
individuals tend to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
Cognitive Dissonance
- the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions - leads to a state of discomfort that can be minimized by changing or justifying actions/thoughts
identity shift effect: when an individual’s state of harmony is disrupted by the threat of social rejection, they change to conform to the norms of the group (the mechanism behind peer pressure)
remember the results/significance of the following:
a) Salmon Asch’s Conformity Exp.
b) Milgram Studies
c) Stanford Prison Exp.
a) tested individuals conformity to the opinions of a group - asked to compare lines
b) tested the extent to which average/every-day individuals would go to “just follow order” - teachers instructed by experimenter to shock learners - 65% shocked all the way
(the MCAT rarely asks about the names of experiments, but be able to apply the results of the experiment to a similar setup)
Labeling Theory
labels given to individuals affect not only how others respond to that person but also how they perceive themselves
Differential Association Theory
the degree to which one is surrounding by ideals which adhere to social norms vs. go against social norms
- deviance can be learned through intimate interactions with others
Strain Theory
an attempt to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect b/t social goals and the ability to achieve those goals within the social structure
Affective
relating to moods, feelings, and attitudes
Social Construction Model
emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions
Display Rules
unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion
Cultural Syndrome
a shared set of beliefs, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme such as language or geography
5 Main Strategies Used in Impression Management
- Self-disclosure: sharing factual information
- Managing appearances: create a positive image
- Ingratiation: using flattery or conformity to win over someone else
- Aligning actions: using excuses to account for questionable behavior
- Alter-casting: imposing an identity onto another person
Dramaturgical Approach
remember front stage vs. back stage
4 Types of Attachment
- Secure attachment - requires a consistent caregiver
- Avoidant attachment - when a caregiver has little or no response to a distressed, crying child; child shows no preference for caregiver compared to strangers
- Ambivalent attachment - when a caregiver is inconsistent in responding to child’s distress; child will become distressed in caregiver’s absence and has mixed feelings about their return
- Disorganized attachment - caregiver is erratic or abusive; child shows no clear patter of behavior in response to caregiver
Game Theory
attempts to explain decision-making between individuals as if they are participating in a game
- evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) and the Hawk-Dove game - on pp.362-363
Implicit Personality Theory
individuals make assumptions about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related
Primacy Effect
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
First impressions are more important than subsequent impressions
Recency Effect
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
The most recent information we gained about an individual is most important
Reliance on Central Traits
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
The tendency to organize the traits of others based on which ones matter to you
Halo Effect
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
When judgments of an individual’s character are affected by the overall impression of the individual
Just-world Hypothesis/Phenomenon
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
The tendency to believe that good things happen to good people and vice versa
Self-serving Bias
one of 6 cognitive biases that affect perception of others
Individuals view their own success as being based on internal factors and their own failures as being based on external factors
Attribution Theory
the tendency of individuals to infer the causes of others’ behavior
- dispositional causes: internal/related to the individual whose behavior is being considered
- situational causes: external/related to the surroundings/social context
Correspondent Inference Theory
when an individual performs an unexpected behavior, we tend to explain it by dispositional attribution
Attribute Substitution
when individuals make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution
(ex. optical illusions)
Ethnocentrism
the practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of your own culture
Cultural Relativism
the understanding that social groups and cultures should be studies on their own terms
Cognitive Neoassociation Model
individuals are more likely to respond aggressively when feeling negative emotions
3 Types of Cues
- Consistency cues: the more consistent an individual’s behavior, the more we associate that behavior with their motives
- Consensus cues: if a person deviates from socially expected behavior, we tend to form a dispositional attribution
- Distinctiveness cues: if a person’s behavior varies in different scenarios, we tend to form a situational attribution and vice versa
Stereotype Content Model
classifies stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using 2 dimensions:
- warmth: warm groups are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources
- competence: competent groups have high status within society
Manifest vs. Latent Functions
Manifest functions - deliberate actions to help a system
Latent functions - unexpected or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions
Conflict Theory
focuses on how power differential are created and contribute to social order
Symbolic Interactionism
the study of the ways individuals interact through words, gestures, and other symbols - studies micro level interactions
Social Constructionism
the study of the ways individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a social reality
Rational Choice Theory; Exchange Theory
- individuals will make rational decisions that maximize benefits and minimize harm
- exchange theory applies rational choice to within social groups - interaction b/t parties that implements a cost-benefit analysis to determine risks and benefits
(note: these theories are problematized by concepts like altruism)
4 Key Ethical Tenets of American Medicine
- Beneficence: acting in the patient’s best interest
- Nonmaleficence: avoiding treatments for which the risk > benefit (“do no harm”)
- Respect for the autonomy of the patient
- Justice: treating patients equally and distributing resources fairly
Material vs. Symbolic Culture
Material - physical items
Symbolic - ideas associated with a cultural group
Cultural Lag
the idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture
Teacher Expectancy
the idea that teachers tend to get what they expect from students
Malthusian Theory
the exponential growth of a population can outpace the growth of resources and lead to social degradation and disorder
Anomie
- a state of normalessness (society provides little to no norms, values)
leads to excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation
Incidence
new cases of a disease per pop. at risk in a given period of time
Second Sickness
the exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
Marxist Theory
proposes that the proletariat (working-class) could overthrow the bourgeoisie (capitalists in power) by developing class consciousness - collective action as a result of the recognition of shared goals
Plutocracy
instead of Meritocracy, the system is ruled by the upper class
World System Theory
categorizes countries based on the division of labor at a global level (emphasizes inequality)
- core nations: high-skilled production
- peripheral nations: low-skilled production
- semi-peripheral nations: in between high and low
Duplexity/Duplicity Theory of Vision
states that the retina contains 2 types of photoreceptors: those specialized for color detection AND those for light-and-dark detection
Parvocellular Cells
- detect SHAPE in visual processing
- high color and spatial resolution; low temporal resolution
- located in LGN of Thalamus
Magnocellular Cells
- detect MOTION in visual processing
- high temporal resolution; low spatial resolution
- located in LGN of Thalamus
