Kaplan — Behavioral Sciences Flashcards
Learning
Way in which we acquire behaviors
Stimulus
Anything to which an organism can respond, including sensory inputs
Habituation
Repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
Dishabituation
Recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
Normally the result of a second stimulus
Associative learning
Creation of a pairing/association between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response
Classical conditioning
Type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual responses
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that brings about such a reflexive response
Unconditioned response
Innate or reflexive response to a stimulus
Neutral stimulus
Stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response
Signaling stimulus
Neutral stimulus that has the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to produce the unconditioned response
Conditioned response
Unconditioned response that has now been trained to respond to a neutral stimulus
Extinction
When the organism has become habituated to the conditioned stimulus and no longer responds with the conditioned response
Spontaneous recovery
When an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
Generalization
Broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
Discrimination
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Operant conditioning
Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors
Behaviorism
Theory that all behaviors are conditioned
B. F. Skinner
Reinforcement
Process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
Positive reinforcers
Adding a positive consequence or incentive to increase a behavior
Negative reinforcers
Removing an unpleasant thing to increase a behavior
Escape learning
Role of behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
Avoidance learning
Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
Primary reinforcer
Something that the organism responds to naturally
Conditioned reinforcer
Something that the organism has been trained to respond that they otherwise wouldn’t naturally
Secondary reinforcer
Conditioned reinforcer
Discriminative stimulus
A stimulus that has not been trained for the organism to respond to but has occurred incidentally
Punishment
Uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
Positive punishment
Adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behavior to reduce that behavior
Negative punishment
Reduction of behavior when a stimulus is removed
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Continuous reinforcement
FR schedule where behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Variable-ratio (VR) schedule
Reinforce a behavior after a variable number of performances of the behavior
Works the fastest for learning a new behavior and is also the most resistance to extinction
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule
Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
Works the slowest
Variable-interval (VI) schedule
Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
Shaping
Processing of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to allow for the training of extremely complicated behaviors
Latent learning
Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Problem solving
Method of learning that steps outside the standard behaviorist approach
Trial-and-error approach
Preparedness
Predisposition of animals to learn behaviors based on their natural abilities and instincts
Instinctive drift
Difficulty imposed by training animals to behave opposite their instinct
Observational learning
Processing of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
Mirror neurons
Neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs an action and when that individual observes someone else performing an action
Modeling
Showing individuals how to behave
Encoding
Process of putting new information into memory
Automatic processing
Information that is gained without effort
Controlled processing
Active memorization (e.g. studying)
Visual encoding
Visualizing to encode information
Weakest method
Acoustic encoding
Storing how it sounds
Semantic encoding
Putting information in a meaningful context
Strongest method
Self-reference effect
Our ability to recall information best when it’s in the context of our own lives
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or store it in short-term and eventually long-term memory
Mnemonics
Acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember
Method of loci
Associating each item in the list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Peg-word system
Associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers (e.g. remembering you need to buy one egg by visualizing one egg being fried)
Chunking
Memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning
Sensory memory
Shortest lasting memory and first reservoir
Consists of both iconic & echoic memory
Iconic memory
Visual memory
Echoic memory
Auditory memory
Whole-report
Asking participants in memory study to repeat everything that they remember in a set
Isn’t as accurate as partial-report
Partial-report
Asking participants to list a particular row or part of the stimulus presentation
Is more accurate
Short-term memory
Fades after 30 seconds
When we pay attention to some information that we are exposed to
7 +/- 2 rule
Short-term memory capacity
Location of short-term memory
Hippocampus
Working memory
Enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and manipulate that information
Location of working memory
Hippocampus primarily
Involvement of frontal and parietal lobes
Elaborative rehearsal
Association of information already stored in long-term memory
Implicit memory
Our skills and conditioned responses
Explicit memory
Memories that require conscious recall
Semantic memory
Type of explicit memory that consists of the facts we know
Episodic memory
Type of explicit memory that includes our experiences
Retrieval
Process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained
Recall
Retrieval and statement of previously learned information
Recognition
Process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned
Relearning
Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory
Previously learned memories are learned faster
Spacing effect
Longer amount of time between sessions of re-learning, greater the retention of information later on
Semantic network
The way that concepts are linked on the brain based on similar meaning
Spreading activation
When one node of our semantic network is activated, other linked concepts around it are also unconsciously activated
Priming
Recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Context effects
Memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
State-dependent memory
Being the same mental state as when learning information aids recall
Serial position effect
Higher recall for the first and last pieces of information in a list
Primacy effect
Being more able to remember the first items on a list
Regency effect
Being more able to remember the second items on a list
Alzheimer’s disease
Degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach neurons that link to the hippocampus
Marked by progressive dementia and memory loss with atrophy of the brain
Microscopic findings of Alzheimer’s
Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques
Sundowning
Increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of previously formed memories
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new memories
Cofabulation
Process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
Agnosia
Ability of recognize objects, peoples, or sounds (normally only one of the three)
Interference
Retrieval error caused by the existence of other information
Proactive interference
Old information interferes with new learning
Retroactive interference
New information causes forgetting of old information
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task in the future
Remains intact when event-based
Misinformation effect
When being exposed to misinformation, people will be caused to misremember
Source-monitoring error
Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory
A person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained
Neuroplasticity
Neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli as our brain develops
Synaptic pruning
Weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of ours brains’ ability to process information
Long-term potentiation
As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing NTs and receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase
Cognition
How our brains process and react to the information overload presented us by the world
Dual-coding theory
Both verbal association & visual images are used to process and store information
Builds redundancy and increases the chance that information can retrieved and used effectively when cued
Information processing model
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding, & storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain
- Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
- Dependent on cognitive level, context of problem, & complexity of problem
Situational modification
One situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
Cognitive development
Development of one’s ability to think and solve the problems across the lifespan
Jean Piget
Divided cognitive development into 4 stages
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Schema
Organized patterns of behavior and thought
Adaptation
How new information is processed
Consists of assimilation and accommodation
Assimilation
Processing of classifying new information into existing schemata
Accommodation
Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information
Sensorimotor stage
From birth to 2 years of age
Learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs
Primary circular reactions
Repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance
Body movement is found soothing
Secondary circular reactions
When manipulation is focused on something outside the body
Body movement gets response from environment
Object permanence
Understanding that objects continue to exist when out of view
Representational thought
Child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events
Preoperational stage
From 2-7 years
Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, & centration
Symbolic thinking
Ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Egocentrism
Inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Centration
Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or inability to understand the concept of conservation
Conservation
Focusing on the number rather than actual quantity
Concrete operational stage
From 7-11 years of age
Understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others and engage in logical thought as long as they are working with concrete objects or directly available information
Formal operational stage
Starts at 11 years of age
Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas
Lee Vygotsky
Said that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his/her culture
Fluid intelligence
Consists of problem-solving skills
Crystallized intelligence
Use of learned skills and knowledge
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (non-psychological causes
Can be the result of pH disturbances, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, pain
Mental set
Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner
Trial-and-error
Less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solution are tried until one is found that seems to work
Algorithm
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
Deductive reasoning
Starts from a set of general rules and draws a conclusions from the information given
Example: logic puzzle
Inductive reasoning
Create a theory via generalizations
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make decisions
Colloquially called rules of thumb
Availability heuristic
When we try to decide how likely something is
Representativeness heuristic
Categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the cateogry
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Discrimination principle
Evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs while rejecting information that goes against them
Overconfidence
Tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
Belief perseverance
Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Intuition
Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence
Recognition-primed decision model
Brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern
Emotion
Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation
Multiple intelligences
There exists 7 kinds of intelligence
Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Performance on different cognitive tasks is positively correlated indicating an underlying factor is playing a role
Consciousness
One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world
Alertness
State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
Neurological circuit for alertness
Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation (neural structure in brain stem)
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Records an average of electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
Beta waves
High frequency waves that occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration
Alpha waves
Awake but relaxes with our eyes closed and are somewhat slower than beta waves
Stage 1 of sleep
Characterized by theta waves
Theta waves
Irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
Stage 2 of sleep
Characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes
Stages 3 and 4 of sleep
Called slow wave sleep
Characterized by delta waves (low-frequency, high-voltage sleep waves)
Associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation
Non-rapid eye movement sleep
Stages 1-4
Rapid eye movement sleep
Arousal levels are that of wakefulness but the muscles are paralyzed
Sleep cycle
Complete progression through the sleep stages
Circadian rhythms
Regulates daily cycle of waking and sleeping
Melatonin
Secreted by pineal gland
Induces sleepiness due to decreasing light
Cortisol
Contributes to wakefulness
Activation-synthesis theory
Caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry and the subsequent stitching together of unrelated information
Problem-solving dream theory
Way to solve problems while you are sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
Merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Dyssomnia
Disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep
Parasomnia
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
Insomnia
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Condition characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
Cataplexy
Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours
Sleep paralysis
Sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
Hypnagogic or hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Sleep apnea
Inability to breathe during sleep
Obstructive sleep apnea
A physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow
Central sleep apnea
Brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe
Night terrors
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
Sleepwalking
Movement during sleep
Sleep deprivation
Result from as little as one night without sleep or form multiple nights of poor quality short duration sleep
Irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, slowed reaction time
REM rebound
Earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep after sleep deprivation
Hypnosis
State in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state
Hypnotic induction
Seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration
Mediation
Quieting the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
Alcohol
Increases the activity of GABA receptor (chloride channel that causes hyper-polarization of membrane)
Alcohol myopia
Inability to recognize consequences of actions
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Deficiency of thiamine that is characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills & caused long term alcohol abuse
Barbiturates
Anxiety-reducing and sleep medications
Increase GABA activity
Type of depressant
Amphetamine
Increase release of dopamine, NE, & serotonin and decrease their reuptake
Feelings of euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, NE, & serotonin
Has vasoconstriction properties
Crack
Form of cocaine that can be smoked
Ectasy
Designer amphetamine
Opium
Bind to opioid receptors in PNS and CNS, decreasing reaction to pain
Opiate
Naturally occurring form of opium
Opioid
Semisynthetic derivative of opium
Heroin
When injected, will be metabolized to morphine
Hallucinogens
Mainly act on serotonin
Cause distortions of fantasy and reality, enhancement of sensory experiences, introspection
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Active chemical in marijuana
Acts on cannabinol day, glycine, opioid receptors
Mesolithic reward pathway
HC → VTA → NAc & frontal cortex
Substantial nigra → striatum
Attention
Concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment
Selective attention
Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems
Cocktail party phenomenon
Selective attention is more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background
Divided attention
Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
Phonology
Actual sound of language
Phonemes
Speech sounds
Categorical perception
Ability to make distinction between phonemes
Morphology
Structure of words
Morphemes
Building blocks of words that connote a particular meaning
Semantics
Association of meaning with a word
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
Prosody
Rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
Errors of growth
When a child applies a grammatical rule in a situation when it does not apply
Nativist (biological) theory
Existence of some innate capacity for language
Transformational grammar
Differences in word order
Easily accomplished by young children
Sensitive period
Environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
Critical period
Only time period in which a person can acquire a skill
Learning (behaviorist) theory
Language acquisition by operant conditioning, showing strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents
Social interactionist theory
Language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate or behave in a social manner
Whorfian hypothesis
Also called linguistic relativity hypothesis
Our perception of reality is determined by the content of language
Broca’s area
Controls the motor function of speech via connections with motor cortex
Wernicke’s area
Responsible for language comprehension
Arcuate fasciculus
Bundle of axons between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas that allow for appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
Aphasia
Deficit of language production or comprehension
Broca’s aphasia
Reduced or absent to produce spoken language
Wernicke’s aphasia
Loss of speech comprehension
Conduction aphasia
Speech production and comprehension are intact
Unable to repeat something that has been said
