Kantian Deontological Ethics

Question 1

What Kantian Deontological ethics? (general theory)

Answer 1

General Theory
The central question in Kantian ethics is: what ought I to do? Kant’s theory is based around the principle of respecting human dignity. Key things to note about Kant’s ethics:
• A maxim is a principle that guides our decision and actions
• The hypothetical imperative is a mean to an end.
• The categorical imperative is a command that must be obeyed for its own sake, not for any ulterior motive.
• Kant thinks for a maxim to count as moral it must be able to be universalised without it leading to contradiction. This could be a contradiction in the law of nature or in the will.
• It is the motive that matters not the outcome. If the motive behind the action is good, then the action counts as moral.
Kant’s theory is act-centred, similar to utilitarianism. The main principle for Kant is rationality. For Kant, rationality is doing what reason requires. This poses the question of ‘how do I determine what is rational’. For each individual person, what is essential is will and reason. Desires are considered to be outside forces which can impose themselves on us. In Kantian ethics, the primary object of evaluation is the motive of the agent. What is good, for Kant, is doing your duty; this does seem to be slightly unclear. What is right is doing your duty simply for the sake of doing your duty. If there is any other form of ulterior motive, such as self interest, then this is not truly right. In terms of what is virtuous, it seems to be having a positive attitude toward doing one’s moral duty, but again this seems unsure. It is an act-centred theory and doesn’t appear to be concerned with the emotion of the individual. The deepest it seems to go into this is motives. But still the only motive which counts as right is one where you do you duty, not one acted out of emotion.

Question 2

What are the six categories to remember when looking at Kant? (list them)

Answer 2

Maxims

2. Universality
3. Role of reason and motivation
4. Categorical and hypothetical imperatives
5. Two versions of testing (categorical imperative) – Universality and formula of humanity
6. Autonomy vs Heteronomy

Question 3

What are Maxims?

Answer 3

A maxim is a principle which guides our decisions and actions. They aren’t necessarily consciously considered but are unique to humans.

Question 4

Universality

Answer 4

Universality means that it must be applicable to everyone. This is part of what it means to be rational. There cannot be a rational person who wouldn’t follow a universalised maxim.

Question 5

Role of reason and motivation

Answer 5

We are special creatures in the universe as we are the only ones capable of reason. We aren’t motivated by feelings or emotions but instead reason and an ‘oughtness’. Rational nature tells us what to do, but we are not completely rational. This is why categorical imperatives apply, otherwise they wouldn’t be a constraint on what we do.

Question 6

Categorical and hypothetical imperatives

Answer 6

An imperative is a command. Categorical means no exceptions; remember categorically knowing something. A categorical imperative would be “do y”. Maths is an example of a categorical imperative. A hypothetical imperative is a means to an end: “if you want x do y”.

Question 7

Two versions of testing (categorical imperative)

Answer 7

Universality:
Could any rational being hold this belief? Could it be universalised without contradiction?
Four step process—Step 1: Identify your maxim
Step 2: Universalise it. “Is it okay for every rational being too…”
Step 3: Does it lead to contradiction? Yes=can’t be moral/No= could be moral
(Contradiction in willing version)—Leads to perfect duties
Step 4: Could a rational being will a world to exist with this rule? (Contradiction in willing version)—Leads to imperfect duties
Formula of humanity:
Are you treating others as an end not means? If not, then you should! Act in such a way that you always treat humanity (either yours or someone else’s) never simply as a means to end but always as an end in itself. Consider the example of a can-opener, an object to be used for a means, whereas a waiter should be used for an end.

Question 8

Autonomy vs Heteronomy

Answer 8

Heteronomy—dominated by instinct and follow basic desires. This is how animals behave. As a trigger, think of pack mentality.
Autonomy— Self-governed. At the very least this is a possibility for humans
Consider the traffic light example. There is no force to stop us at the traffic lights. We can happily drive straight through them as the car in front has. Yet we choose to stop not because of the consequences but because it is the right thing to do. Stopping is not a restraint on our freedom but exercising our freedom, an expression of freedom.

Question 9

Give five arguments against utilitarianism (from Kantian perspective)

Answer 9

1. Morality based on happiness
2. Don’t/can’t know consequences
3. Happiness is different from person to person whereas morality is the same across the entire planet
4. Happiness is not always good; consider the happy-axeman example
5. We evaluate happiness in accordance to morality (Naturalistic fallacy)

Question 10

Give two arguments and one response against virtue ethics (from Kantian perspective)

Answer 10

1. focusing purely on rationality misses out a lot about our rationality
   R: VE still depends upon eudaemonia—not a foundation for knowledge (hypothetical imperative) VE also tends to become relativism, whereas morality needs to be across the whole of society.
2. Just following a rule isn’t being genuinely moral—not taking into account consequences.