Italy Booklet 5- Consent and Control in the Fascist Dictatorship

Question 1

When and why was RE made compulsory in elementary and secondary schools?

Answer 1

Elementary- 1923
Secondary- 1929
This would gain the support of the Catholic Church and was a unifying factors for Italians as most Italians were Catholic.

Question 2

How was the cult of Mussolini expressed in schools?

Answer 2

A portrait of Mussolini was hung in every classroom.

Question 3

How did the fascists control the school curriculum?

Answer 3

In 1926, 101 of 317 history texts were banned and in 1928 a single government textbook was introduced- the libro unico covering all subjects for each year of elementary school. Military education was introduced in secondary schools in 1935. Anti-Semitism was taught from 1938.

Question 4

When did teachers take an oath of loyalty to Mussolini?

Answer 4

1929

Question 5

When was membership of the Fascist Association (the teacher association) made compulsory for teachers?

Answer 5

1937

Question 6

What happened in universities?

Answer 6

They were generally left alone as many teenage students were likely to be fascist anyway having been indoctrinated in elementary schools and the Balilla.

Question 7

What did the fascists want Italy’s youth to be like?

Answer 7

Unified, obedient, loyal and trained for the military. They used sport particularly to create a group identity for the youth and to implicitly train them in combat skills like being ordered, fit and strong.

Question 8

What happened when men turned 18?

Answer 8

They were either conscripted into the Royal Army or they volunteered for the Black Shirts, the Navy or the Air Force. They either served willingly in one of these services or were drafted into the Army.

Question 9

What was the OND?

Answer 9

An organisation that members used for various social and sporting activities including subsidised holidays and excursions.

Question 10

How many members did the OND have by 1939?

Answer 10

Over 4 million members (although only 40% of industrial workers).

Question 11

What was significant about the OND?

Answer 11

It was ideologically free and membership was not compulsory. This made it more popular with the Italian masses. The popularity of the OND did show participation with fascism and fascist style activities in Italy and arguably this was a greater form of control than promoting fascism would have been. It was one of the most popular fascist policies and so gained Mussolini a lot of support.

Question 12

What was the Cult of Il Duce?

Answer 12

It was the portrayal of Mussolini by the fascists as a strong and capable leader who was leading Italy to greatness. They made Mussolini appear almost mythical and like the heir to Caesar and Augustus. This was meant to strengthen Mussolini’s position in the Italians’ minds as the unquestionable leader of Italy.

Question 13

What were the weaknesses of the Cult of Il Duce?

Answer 13

Meant Mussolini himself was more popular than the PNF or fascist ideology as it focused on worshipping Mussolini, not fascism. This meant it was unlikely that fascism would survive without Mussolini and as he aged, the idea of his strength and dynamic nature would be hard to sustain.

Question 14

How were newspapers controlled by the fascists?

Answer 14

All journalists were incorporated into a fascist union and would lose their jobs if their work wasn’t positive about Mussolini. Shut down newspapers like Avanti! and Partito Popolare. This meant it was very difficult for Italians to view any alternative narrative than the one presented by the fascists.

Question 15

In what ways was the control of newspapers limited?

Answer 15

Mussolini’s fascist newspaper had a small circulation of 100,000 and only accounted for 10% of all newspaper sales.

Question 16

How did the fascists try and control cinema?

Answer 16

PNF funded the Italian film industry and created Film City (a film production complex) in the late 1930s. There were several films that glorified fascism like Vecchia Guardia and Luciano Serra.

Question 17

How was control of cinema limited?

Answer 17

87% of box office takings came from Hollywood produced films.

Question 18

How did the fascists try and control art and architecture?

Answer 18

Policy that all art should serve the goals of the fascist state. National Institute of Fascist Culture set up in 1926. Architecture was based on a neoclassical Roman style to further link Mussolini and Italy to ancient Rome and suggest Mussolini is like the great emperors.

Question 19

How was control of art and architecture limited?

Answer 19

It lacked a key message or idea so didn’t really resonate with the Italian people.

Question 20

Why would Mussolini want to compromise with the Catholic Church?

Answer 20

-PPI were popular and successful in 1919 and 1921 elections so Mussolini would gain support from their supporters.
-Catholic newspaper- Corriere della Sera was most popular with circulation of 600,000.
-Italians were overwhelmingly Catholic so this would be popular and was a way of uniting Italian people.
-Pope would recognise Italian state and this would gain Mussolini support.

Question 21

When were the Lateran Pacts?

Answer 21

1929

Question 22

How much compensation was the Church granted for lost lands from unification?

Answer 22

750 million lire.

Question 23

What else did the Church get in the Lateran Pacts?

Answer 23

-A sovereign state in Rome- Vatican City.
-Control over divorce.
-RE to be taught in all schools.
-The state to accept the role and existence of Catholic Action.

Question 24

What did Mussolini gain in the Lateran Pacts?

Answer 24

-The Pope recognised the Italian state and Rome as its capital, finally solving the Roman Question.
-Veto over church appointments.

Question 25

What did the Lateran Pacts make impossible?

Answer 25

Mussolini’s chance at a totalitarian regime as he had granted the Church certain concessions that gave it power and influence.

Question 26

What was the impact of the Lateran Pacts on Mussolini?

Answer 26

Benefitted politically and gained popularity for solving the Roman Question as it made him appear more competent than the old liberal governments. Church took part in fascist ONB activities and stressed the unity of the Pope and the Duce. However Catholic propaganda was allowed to exist which gave Italians an alternative message than the one presented by the fascists.

Question 27

What was the impact of the Lateran Pacts on the Catholic Church?

Answer 27

Considerable religious revival where Church marriages, church schools and priests all increased. Church became a strong political force in Italy, especially as Catholic Action became popular. However, Mussolini shut down branches of Catholic Action as he feared its popularity.

Question 28

How much control did Mussolini have over the King?

Answer 28

Italy remained a constitutional monarchy but Mussolini did gradually remove some of the King’s power over time such as making himself Supreme Military Commander in 1940, a position the King held in 1938 and shared with Mussolini in 1939.

Question 29

How much control did Mussolini have over the military?

Answer 29

Mussolini was Supreme Military Commander (1940) but armed forces were largely left alone and run by generals and admirals (who were mostly sympathetic to fascism).

Question 30

How much control did Mussolini have over the legal system and civil service?

Answer 30

They were left largely unchanged but some anti-fascist civil servants were removed from their position.

Question 31

How much control did Mussolini have over central government?

Answer 31

In December 1925, Mussolini made himself accountable to the King only, not to Parliament and Mussolini was the only one who could initiate and pass legislation. In 1928, Fascist Grand Council became most important legal body in Italy (which was controlled by Mussolini). Left Senate alone but over time ensured all new Senators were fascists.

Question 32

How much control did Mussolini have over local government?

Answer 32

Left traditional position of Prefect as the highest state authority in each province and they were mostly held by career civil servants, not fascist leaders. Local councils run by Podesta who were also conservative elite and appointed by Prefects who were appointed by Mussolini. Local government organised police, censorship and reported on local fascist branches to Mussolini.

Question 33

How much control did Mussolini have over the economic interest groups?

Answer 33

He favoured big business and Italian business and banned strikes, slowdowns and decreased workers wages. Fascist syndicates created when unions were banned but they did little to help workers. Rocco Law passed in 1926 which gave syndicates some rights of representation.

Question 34

How much control did Mussolini have over the PNF and nationalists?

Answer 34

Purged more radical members of the PNF who were replaced by middle class civil servants. This eradicated the threat of Mussolini being replaced by more radical fascists and legitimised fascism. In 1933, PNF membership became compulsory for some middle class workers. Merger with ANI meant foreign policy became more imperialist.

Question 35

Why did the Fascist state become more radical and anti-semitic in the late 1930s?

Answer 35

Mussolini wanted to unite Italians through a more militaristic and radicalised society while there were growing economic issues and concern about the growing relationship with Germany. He also thought that it would help prepare Italy for war.

Question 36

What was the impact of Italy’s radicalisation?

Answer 36

It was ridiculed by the Italians and most chose to ignore it. The pope also condemned anti-semitism and the Italians thought that Mussolini was just trying to copy Nazi Germany. Anti-semitism was resented and 6,000 Jews left the country.

Question 37

What was the Anti-Fascist Concentration?

Answer 37

Formed in Paris in 1927- a group of liberals and socialists who concentrated on informing Europeans of the evils of fascism. However the liberals and socialists struggled to work together and it dissolved itself in 1934 after it lost support to GL and communism.

Question 38

What did the Communist Party do to oppose fascism in Italy?

Answer 38

It had 2,000 to 8,000 members and infiltrated some factories and helped trade unions strike and demonstrate. However the Soviet Union forbid them from working with anyone else and the support the SU gave was limited. After 1943, it played a major role in resistance in Northern Italy.

Question 39

How did exiles oppose fascism in Italy?

Answer 39

Publicised horrors of fascism abroad, smuggled anti-fascist literature into Italy and planned an overthrow of fascism.

Question 40

How many anti-fascist volunteers were fighting in Spain from 1936?

Answer 40

3000

Question 41

What was significant about the Italian Garibaldi Legion?

Answer 41

Defeated Italian fascist forces at Guadalajara in 1937.

Question 42

Did opposition outside Italy pose much of a threat to the fascist state?

Answer 42

No, opposition was weak with few members and foreign support was limited as other countries had bigger problems so didn’t really care.

Question 43

When were some of the most major strikes and demonstrations in Italy?

Answer 43

Bologna- 1930 and 1931.
Trieste- 1933.
Turin- 1943 (quickly gained concessions).
Spontaneous demonstrations in northern cities in 1933 with the slogan ‘we want bread and jobs’.

Question 44

How many assassination attempts were there on Mussolini’s life by anarchists?

Answer 44

4

Question 45

What did the GL (Justice and Liberty) do?

Answer 45

Founded by Rosselli in Paris in 1929 and tried to galvanise Italians into anti-fascist action. Established an underground network in Italy, declined after the Rosselli brothers’ murders but revived from 1943.

Question 46

Why was the Catholic Church probably the strongest opponent to Mussolini?

Answer 46

It was very popular in Italy and abroad. It disliked the fascist pressure on Catholic Action and the racist decrees.

Question 47

What was confino and what could send people into confino?

Answer 47

Exile (usually in the South) for political opponents to Mussolini even where there was no evidence of anti-fascist activities. It was financially devastating and their families faced considerable discrimination from the fascists. Organised by Special Tribunals.

Question 48

When was the Political Police division formed?

Answer 48

Late 1926.

Question 49

What did the Political Police division do?

Answer 49

Infiltrated and broke up anti-fascist organisations and had a considerable network of spies in Italy and abroad. Worked with SIM (military spying organisation) to organise the assassination of the Rosselli brothers by a French fascist group.

Question 50

How many prosecutions did the Special Tribunals make and how much jail time was imposed?

Answer 50

13,547 cases prosecuted and 27,742 years of jail time imposed.

Question 51

How many Italians were sent into confino?

Answer 51

Around 10,000

Question 52

How many informers were operating in Italy under OVRA and where did they infiltrate?

Answer 52

Around 5000. Infiltrated universities, businesses and fascist unions.

Question 53

What did OVRA do?

Answer 53

Stopped the organisation of anti-fascist groups. e.g. Italian mail was examined and phone calls were listened to.

Question 54

How many death sentences were carried out by the fascist regime and what interpretations can be made about this?

Answer 54

Only 9. Either the state wasn’t very repressive, especially compared to communist Russia and Nazi Germany or it was so repressive that no-one went against Mussolini because they were too scared.

Question 55

Were anti-fascists able to organise themselves effectively or not?

Answer 55

No, often they didn’t know each other existed as they were too scared to voice anti-fascist views. Any organisations that did form were shut down quickly and the members were punished.