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PAPER 3 - PSYCHOLOGY > ISSUES AND DEBATES IN PSYCHOLOGY > Flashcards

ISSUES AND DEBATES IN PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

What is universitality

A

Any underlying characteristics of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.

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2
Q

What do gender and culture bias threaten in psychology

A

The universality of findings

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3
Q

What might a psychologists beliefs mean for their findings

A

They follow a subjective and not objective view

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4
Q

What does it mean if there is a high universality

A

That conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere regardless of time or culture

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5
Q

What is bias when considering human behaviour

A

When considering human behaviour bias is a tendency to treat one individual group in a different ways from another

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6
Q

What is gender bias

A

Psychological research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women

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7
Q

What gender is usually not justifiably represented

A

Women

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8
Q

What are the two forms of gender bias

A

Alpha bias and beta bias

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9
Q

What is alpha bias?
Exaggerates or minimises?

A

Research that focuses on differences between men and women, and therefore tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences

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10
Q

What 2 things are differences typically presented as in alpha-bias

A

Fixed and and inevitable

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11
Q

Who’s theory is a classic example of alpha bias

A

Freud (1905)

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12
Q

What Freud theory is a classic example of alpha-bias

A

Theory of psychosexual development.

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13
Q

What occurs in the phallic stage of frauds theory of psychosexual development

A

Both boys and girls develop a desire for their opposite-gender parent

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14
Q

What does the phallic stage of frauds psychosexual theory create within a boy

A

Strong castration anxiety - fear his father will cut his penis off

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15
Q

How is a boys castration anxiety resolved in frauds psychosexual theory

A

When the boy identifies his father

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16
Q

What is the difference between a boy and girls eventual identification
What does this mean about superego

A

A girls eventual identification with her same-gender parent is weaker
Means her superego is weaker
Therefore girls/women are morally inferior to boys/men

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17
Q

Who gave an example of alpha bias favouring women in the psychodynamic approach

A

Nancy Chodorow (1968)

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18
Q

What was Chodorow’s statement that is an example of women being favoured in alpha-bias

A

Daughters and mothers have a greater connectedness than sons and mothers because of biological similarities.
This means women develop better abilities to bond with others and empathise.

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19
Q

What is beta bias
Exaggerates or minimises?

A

Research that focuses on similarities between men and women.
Tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences

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20
Q

What issue can arise for women as a result of beta bias research and psychological findings

A

It assumes that research findings apply equally to both men and women even when women have been excluded from the research process.

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21
Q

What is one example of beta bias research

A

Research on the fight or flight response

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22
Q

What was the assumption made with results from fight or flight investigations

A

Assumed that both male and females respond to threatening situations with fight or flight

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23
Q

Why are female animals often omitted from biological research

A

Female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes dye it ovulation.

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24
Q

Who claimed that women also doing fight or flight response is untrue

A

Shelley Taylor et al. (2000)

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25
Q

What did Taylor suggest as a more female accurate response to threatening situations

A

The tend and befriend response

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26
Q

Describe the tend and befriend response
Name the hormone that she suggested is key in this

A

The ‘love’ hormone oxytocin is more plentiful in women.
Women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production.
This reduces the fight or flight response and triggers an evolved response for looking after others.

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27
Q

Give an example and describe how research can misrepresent men
What has proved the initial claim wrong

A

Research on attachment assumed emotional care is provided solely by the mother
Research on the role of the father shows fathers can supply they emotional care often assumed to be the province of women.

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28
Q

What are alpha and beta bias consequences of

A

Androcentrism

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29
Q

What is androcentrism
What gender is at the centre of this
What does this mean about assumptions on the other genders behaviour

A

Male-centred
When ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard.
Female behaviour is often judged as being ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’ in comparison.

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30
Q

How many women were in the American Psychological Associations list of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century
(How many were names in total)

A

6 out of 100

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31
Q

What does the number of women named as influential psychologists suggest about the traditional view of psychology as a subject

A

Produced by men, for men and about men

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32
Q

What type of perspective is psychology being produced by me, for men and about men

A

An androcentric perspective

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33
Q

What is the extreme take on women behaviour in original psychology
Key word

A

It has been pathologised - been taken as a sign of illness

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34
Q

Who gave an example of a difference in how men and women emotions are viewed

A

Brescoll and Uhlmann (2008)

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35
Q

What did Brescoll and Uhlmann state about the difference ways in which female and male emotions are viewed

A

Women’s emotions such as anger are medicalised by explaining in hormonal terms
Men’s anger in contrast is seen as a rational response to external pressures.

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36
Q

What are the limitations of gender bias (3)

A

Gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring
Gender bias promotes sexism in research
Research challenging gender biases may not be published

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37
Q

Who conducted research that falsely proves gender differences are fixed and enduring

A

Eleanor Maccoby and Carlton Jacklin (1974)

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38
Q

What research did Maccoby and Jacklin present to prove that gender differences are fixed and enduring

A

Presented findings of several gender studies

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39
Q

What did Maccoby and Jacklin conclude about their research on gender differences being fixed and enduring

A

Girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability.
These differences are ‘hardwired’ into the brain before birth.

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40
Q

Who did research on brain structure that also suggests gender differences are fixed and enduring

A

Daphna Joel et al. (2015)

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41
Q

What was Joels techniqued used when showing gender differences are fixed and enduring

A

Braun scanning

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42
Q

What did Joel find on the structure of the brain when looking at gender differences

A

No such sex differences in brain structure or processing.

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43
Q

Why might have Maccoby and Jacklin’s research been popularised

A

It fitted the existing stereotypes of girls as ‘speakers’ and boys as ‘doers’

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44
Q

What does Maccoby & Jacklin as well as Joel’s findings suggest about accepting research findings

A

We should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they might be explained better as social steroptypes

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45
Q

What is the counterpoint to much research showing gender differences as fixed and enduring

A

Psychologists should not avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain.

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46
Q

Who provides evidence for the counterpoint to gender differences often being presented as fixed and enduring

A

Madura ingalhalikar et al (2014)

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47
Q

What did Ingalhalikar suggest about popular stereotypes in women when counter-arguing gender differences not being fixed and enduring

A

Popular social stereotypes that woman are better at multitasking may have some biological truth to it.
A women’s brain may benefit from better connections between the right and left hemisphere than in a man’s

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48
Q

Who made statements about gender bias promoting sexism in the research process

A

Murphy et al (2014)

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49
Q

What did Murphy say about university intake and lecturers

A

Although psychology’s undergraduate intake is mainly of women, lectures in psychology departments are more likely to be men.

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50
Q

What does Murphys statement about university intake and lectures mean for research

A

Research is more likely to be conducted by men and this may disadvantage participants who are women.

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51
Q

Who gave an example of how a male psychologist may view women in his research

A

Nicholson (1995)

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52
Q

What did Nicholson suggest about male researchers expectations of women in research and its impact on results

A

A male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks and such expectations are likely to mean that women underperform in research studies.

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53
Q

Who analysed articles to show research challenging gender bias may not be published

A

Magdalena Formanowicz et al (2018)

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54
Q

What was Formanowicz’s method when researching unpublished research challenging gender bias

A

Analysed more than 1000 articles relating to gender bias, published over 8 years

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55
Q

What did Formanowicz find about research challenging gender bias being unpublished

A

Research on gender bias is funded less often and is published in less prestigious journals.

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56
Q

What is the consequences of Formanowicz’s findings on research challenging gender bias being under published

A

Fewer scholars become aware of the research or apply it in their own works.

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57
Q

What further statement did Formanowicz make about other biases in publication
What did they control to ensure this was fair

A

Still held true when gender bias was compared with other forms of bias.
Gender of the authors and the methodology was controlled.

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58
Q

What is cultural bias

A

A tendency to interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour.

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59
Q

Who reviewed studies focusing on cultural biases as a whole in psychology research

A

Joseph Henrich et al (2010)

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60
Q

What was Henrich’s method when looking at cultural biases in psychological studies as a whole

A

Reviewed hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals

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61
Q

What did Henrich find about the nationality used most in psychological studies

A

68% of research participants came from the United States

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62
Q

What did Henrich find about the percentage of type of nations people come from within psychological studies

A

96% were from industrialised nations.

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63
Q

Who researched the percentage of psychology undergraduates taking part in research

A

Arnett (2008)

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64
Q

What did Arnett find the percentage of participants in research were undergraduates in in psychology

A

80% of research participants were undergraduates studying psychology

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65
Q

Who coined the term WEIRED when describing people most likely to be involved in psychological studies

A

Henrich et al.

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66
Q

What does WEIRED stand for

A

Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich, Democracies

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67
Q

If the standard is set by ‘WEIRD’ people then what type of person will be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’

A

People from a non-westernised, less educated, agricultural and poorer culture.

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68
Q

What is ethnocentrism

A

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of ones own culture.

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69
Q

Describe ethnocentrism in its extreme form

A

The belief in the superiority of ones own culture which may lead to the prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

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70
Q

Who has an example of research that has been criticised as reflecting only norms and values of ‘western culture’

A

Mary Ainsworth and Silvia Bell (1970)

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71
Q

What was Ainsworth and Bells criticised experiement called

A

Strange Stituation

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72
Q

What was Ainsworth and Bells researching within their criticised work

A

Conducted reserach on attachment type

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73
Q

What did Ainsworth and Bell suggest was the ideal attachment

A

Ideal attachment is characterised but the babies showing moderate amounts of distress when left alone by their mother-figure

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74
Q

What was the cultural based misinterpretation made in other country’s from Ainsworth and Bell’s findings

A

Misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other counties which were seen to deviate from the American ‘norm’

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75
Q

Who investigated attachment type in children in Japan

A

Takahashi (1986)

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76
Q

What did Takahashis results mean in terms of Ainsworth and Bells findings

A

Japanese infants were much more likely to be insecurely attached because they showed considerable distress on separation.

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77
Q

What is cultural relativism

A

The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts

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78
Q

Who drew a distinction between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour

A

John Berry (1969)

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79
Q

What is an etic approach

A

An approach that looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal

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80
Q

What is an emic approach

A

An approach that functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.

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81
Q

Is Ainsworth and Bells research an example of etic or emic approach
Explain

A

It was an imposed etic

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82
Q

Explain why ainsworth and bells research is an imposed etic

A

They studied behaviour in one culture and then assumed their ideal attachment type could be applied universally.

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83
Q

What should psychologists be much more mindful of in their research when it comes to culture

A

Cultural relativism
The things they discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture within which they were discovered.

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84
Q

What are the limitations of psychology in terms of cultural bias (2)

A

Many of the most influential studies in psychology are culturally-bias
Cultural bias in psychology has led to prejudice against groups of people

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85
Q

Give two examples of a very influential study only conducted on American, white, middle-class students

A

Asch and Milgram

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86
Q

Who repeated Asch’s study on conformity in other cultures

A

Smith and Bond (1993)

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87
Q

What did Smith and Bond find out about conformity when completing Asch’s experiment in other cultures.
Key words for both culture names

A

Asch-type experiment in collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity than the original studies in the US, an individualist culture

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88
Q

What is the counter argument to the differences between individualist and collectivist cultures

A

Increased media globalisation has lead to the individualist-collectivist distinction no longer applying.

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89
Q

Who conducted research on the individualist-collectivist distinction

A

Yohtaro Takano and Eiko Osaka (1999)

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90
Q

What did Takano and Osaka find about the individualist-collectivist distinction

A

14 out of 15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism - describing the distinction as lazy and simplistic.

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91
Q

Who explained how the first intelligence test led to eugenic social policies in the US

A

Stephen Jay Gould (1981)

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92
Q

When did psychologists pilot the first IQ tests - on how many people

A

Used WW1 and did it on 1.75 million recruits

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93
Q

Name an ethnocentric item on the original IQ test

A

Assuming everyone would know the names of the US presidents

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94
Q

What did the ethnocentric items on the original IQ test mean for results

A

Recruits from south-eastern Europe an African-americans recieved the lowest scores.

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95
Q

What came as a result of different cultures doing ‘worse’ on an ethnocentric IQ test

A

Ethnic minorities were deemed ‘mentally unfit’ and ‘feeble-minded’ in comparison to the white majority and were denied educational and professional opportunities as a result.

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96
Q

Who defined the term cultural psychology

A

Dov Cohen (2017)

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97
Q

What did Cohen say cultural psychology was

A

The study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experiences

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98
Q

What approach do cultural psychologists take to avoid ethnocentric assumptions

A

An emic approach

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99
Q

How do psychologists achieve an emic approach in cultural psychology

A

Conduct research from inside a culture, alongside local researchers using culturally-based techniques

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100
Q

Work from what other disciplines is incorporated in cultural psychology

A

Anthropology, sociology and political science

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101
Q

Cross-cultural research tends to focus on how many cultures

A

2

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102
Q

What question does the free will-determinism ask

A

Is our behaviour a matter of free will or are we the product of a set of internal and/or external influences that determine who we are and what we do?

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103
Q

What is free will?

A

The notion that humans can make chooses and their behaviour / thoughts are not determined by biological or external forces

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104
Q

What is determinism

A

The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something

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105
Q

What to some extent are most approaches in psychology

A

Determinism

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106
Q

What does the biological approach suggest the cause of behaviour is
What debate is this

A

Internal
Nature and nurture

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107
Q

What does the behaviourist approach suggest the cause of behaviour is

A

External

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108
Q

What approach embraces the concept of free will

A

The humanistic approach

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109
Q

What are the two extremities of determinism

A

Hard and soft

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110
Q

What is hard determinism

A

The view that all behaviour is caused by something (internal or external actors) so free will is an illusion.

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111
Q

What is hard determinism sometimes reffered to

A

Fatalism

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112
Q

Is it possible to identify the causes in hard determinism

A

It should be possible

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113
Q

Who first put forward the notion of soft determinism
What was his expertise

A

William James (1890)
Philosopher

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114
Q

What approach is soft determinism an important feature of

A

The cognitive approach

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115
Q

What is soft determinism

A

The view that behaviour may be predictable (caused by internal or external factors) but there is also room for personal choice from a limited range of possibilities (restricted free will)

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116
Q

What are the three types of determinism

A

Biological determinism
Environmental determinism
Psychic determinism

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117
Q

What is biological determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, hormonal and evolutionary) influences that we cannot control

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118
Q

Give an example of biological determinism in action

A

The influence of the automatic nervous system on the stress response
Influence of genes on mental health

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119
Q

What is environmental determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.

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120
Q

Who argued that free will is an illusion and behaviour is a result of conditioning

A

B.F. Skinner

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121
Q

In environmental determinism we might think we are acting independently but our experience of ‘choice’ is merely the sum of what

A

The sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives.

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122
Q

What is psychic determinism

A

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts that we cannot control

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123
Q

Who believed that free will is an illusion and emphasised the influence of biological drives and instincts
And in psychic determinism

A

Sigmund Freud

124
Q

One of the basic principles of science is that every event in the universe has ____
Is this hard or soft determinism

A

A cause and that cause can be explained using general laws
Hard

125
Q

Why is the knowledge of causes and the formation of laws so important to scientists

A

They allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.

126
Q

What type of experiment is the ideal of science as it enables causal relationships to be demonstrated

A

Lab experiment

127
Q

What is one strength of free will rather than determinism

A

Practical value

128
Q

Even if we dont have free will, what can thinking we do exercise free choice do in everyday life

A

Improve our mental health

129
Q

Who conducted a study on believing in free will and mental health

A

Rebecca Robert’s et al (2000)

130
Q

What was Robert’s method when looking at free will and mental health

A

Looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism (determinism).
Those that believed that their lives were ‘decided’ by events outside their control.

131
Q

What was Robert’s findings when looking at belief in free will and mental health

A

Adolescents that believed in fatalism were at significantly greater risk of developing depression.

132
Q

What is the link between locus of control and optimism

A

People who exhibit external, rather than internal locus of control are less likely to be optimistic.

133
Q

What is one limitation of free will

A

That brain scan evidence does not support it but does support determinism.

134
Q

Who did research on brain scan evidence for free will and determinism

A

Benjamin Libet et al (1983)

135
Q

What was Libet’s method when using brain scans to look at free will and determinism

A

Instructed participants could choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured activity in their brain (readiness potential).
Participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move.

136
Q

What was libet’s findings when using brain scans to look at free will and determinism

A

He found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around half a second before the participants consciously felt they had decided to move.

137
Q

How might Libet’s findings be interpreted when looking at free will and determinism

A

Even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them

138
Q

What is the counterpoint to Libet’s findings on free will and determinism
Focuses on subconscious and conscious decisions

A

Just because we aren’t aware of the decision to act doesn’t mean that there was no decision - just that the decision took time to reach out consciousness.

139
Q

What is one limitation to determinism

A

The position of the legal system on responsibility

140
Q

Who is held responsible for your actions in the court of law
Does this support determinism or free will

A

You are
A dependent has exercised their free will in committing the crime

141
Q

What is the nature-nurture debate

A

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited or acquired characteristics.

142
Q

Why is the nature-nurture debate not really a debate

A

Any behaviour / characteristic arises from a combination of both.

143
Q

Give an example of nature and nurture working together to determine attachment type

A

Nature (the child’s temperament) in a real sense creates the nurture (the parents response) so environment and heredity interact.

144
Q

What type of approach is it when looking at how nature and nurture interact

A

An interactionist approach

145
Q

How does the diathesis-stress model support the nature and nurture debate

A

It suggests behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental ‘trigger’ (stressor)

146
Q

What does epigenetic refer to

A

A change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves.

147
Q

What is environemnt

A

Any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic.
This may range from parental influences in the womb through to cultural and historical influences at a societal level.
It includes biological influences (food you eat etc.)

148
Q

What is heredity

A

The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another.

149
Q

What is the interactionist approach

A

A way to explain the development of behaviour in terms of a range of factors, including both psychological ones. Most importantly such factors dont simply add together but combine in a way that cant be predicted by each one separately (they interact)

150
Q

How long does epigenetics occur for?
What causes it?

A

A process that occurs throughout life
Caused by interactions with the environment.

151
Q

Describe how epigenetics occurs

A

Aspects of our life style or events we encounter (smoking, diet, trauma) leave ‘marks’ on our DNA (genes), which switch genes on or off.

152
Q

Does epigenetics only effect you

A

No changes may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children.

153
Q

What is the third-element that epigenetics brings into the nature-nurture debate

A

The life experience of previous generations

154
Q

What does nature refer to

A

Inherited influences or heredity.

155
Q

Who argued that all human characteristics and even some aspects of knowledge are innate

A

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

156
Q

What does nurture refer to

A

Influence of experience and environment

157
Q

Who argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth and then shaped by environment

A

John Locke (1632-1704)

158
Q

What approach does the nurture debate and Locke’s view play a huge role in

A

Behaviourist approach

159
Q

Who identified different levels of the environemnt

A

Richard Lerner (1986)

160
Q

What do the different levels of environment include when looking at a feotus

A

Prenatal factors such as how physical influences (smoking) or psychological influences (music)

161
Q

What represents the degree to which two people are similar on a particular trait
What is this called

A

A correlation coefficient
Concordance.

162
Q

Concordance provides an estimate about the extend to which a trait is___
What is this called

A

Inherited
Heritability

163
Q

What is heritability

A

The proportion of differences between individuals in a population, with regards to a particular trait, that is due to genetic variation

164
Q

What figure or percentage means genes contribute almost nothing to individual differences

A

.01 or 1%

165
Q

What figure or percentage means genes are the only reason for individual differences

A

1.0 or 100%

166
Q

What is the general figure for IQ heritability across multiple studies in varying populations
Who found this

A

0.5
Plomin (1994)

167
Q

What does 0.5 being the most common figure for IQ heritability mean

A

That about half of a person’s intelligence is determined by genetic factors and the other half environment

168
Q

What are 3 strengths of the nature-nurture debate

A

The use of adoption studies
Support for epigenetics
Real-world application

169
Q

Why are adoption studies useful when looking at the nature-nurture debate

A

They separate the competing influences

170
Q

What is the suggested bigger influence when an adopted child is more like their adoptive parents

A

Environment is a bigger influence

171
Q

Who performed an analysis on aggression and adoption studies

A

Soo Rhee and Irwin Waldman (2002)

172
Q

What did Rhee and Waldman do to investigate aggression within the nature-nurture debate

A

Conducted a meta-analysis of adoption studies

173
Q

What did Rhee and Waldman find about aggression in the nature nurture debate

A

Genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression.

174
Q

What is the counterargument for the nature-nurture debate being investigated through adoptive studies

A

The approach may be misguided and that nature and nurture are not two entities that can simply be pulled apart.

175
Q

Who made a statement that backs up the counterpoint of nature and nurture not being two entities

A

Robert Plomin (1994)

176
Q

What was Polmin’s statement about nature and nurture being two entities

A

People create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’.

177
Q

Put Polmins statement on nature and nurture in the context of aggressive children
What does he refer to this as

A

A naturally aggressive child is likely to feel more comfortable with children who show similar behaviours and will ‘choose’ their environment accordingly.
Chosen companions further influence their development.

Niche-picking

178
Q

What event is an example of how environmental factors can span generations presumably through epigenetics

A

The Second World War.
In 1944 the Nazis blocked the distribution of food to the Dutch people and 22,000 died of starvation - Dutch Hunger Winter.

179
Q

Who investigated the effect of the Dutch Hunger Winter on epigenetics

A

Ezra Susser and Shang Lin (1992)

180
Q

What was Susser’s and Lin’s two findings on the effect of the Dutch hunger winter on epigenetics

A

Women who became pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies.
These babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia.

181
Q

What does research suggest about the heritability of OCD

A

It is highly heritable mental disorder.

182
Q

Who found the heritability rate for OCD

A

Gerald Nestadt et al. (2010)

183
Q

What was Nestadts heritability rate for OCD

A

0.76

184
Q

What does being able to know the heritability rate for a disorder mean for someone with parents that have the disorder and getting help

A

They can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent it

185
Q

What is the holistic-reductionism debate

A

The question of whether holism or reductionism is the better approach to use in order to understand human behaviour.

186
Q

What is the holistic approach

A

Studying the ‘whole’
Any attempt to subdivide behaviour or experience into smaller units is innapropriate

187
Q

What is the relationship between holism and reductionism
Why

A

There is no continuum between the two
The debate is more about preference

If you broke down the holistic approach it is not holistic anymore

188
Q

Does the humanistic psychologists take a more holistic or reductionist approach

A

Holistic

189
Q

Does the behaviourists take a more holistic or reductionist approach

A

Reductionist

190
Q

What is holism

A

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an individual system rather than its constituent parts.

191
Q

What is reductionism

A

The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying smaller constituent parts.

192
Q

What is the reductionist approach

A

Seeks to analyse behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts.

193
Q

Which psychologists took the holistic view

A

Gestalt psychologists

194
Q

What do Gestalt psychologists argue

A

That the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

195
Q

The humanistic approach focuses on the individuals ____

A

Experience

196
Q

What methods do humanistic psychologists research with

A

Qualitative methods
Themes are analysed rather than breaking he concept into component behaviours

197
Q

What scientific principle is reductionism based on

A

Parsimony

198
Q

What is parsimony

A

All phenomena should be explained using the simplest principles.

199
Q

What are levels of explanation

A

The idea that there are several ways that can be used to explain behaviour.

200
Q

What does the lowest level of explanation consider

A

Physiological / biological explanations

201
Q

What does the middle level of of explanation consider

A

Psychological explanations

202
Q

What does the highest level of explanation consider

A

Social and cultural explanations

203
Q

List the 6 levels that OCD could be considered at

A

Socio-cultural
Psychological
Environmental behavioural
Physiological
Neurochemical

204
Q

How is OCD understood at the socio-cultural level

A

OCD interrupts social relationships

205
Q

How is OCD understood at the psychological level

A

The person’s experience of anxiety

206
Q

How is OCD understood at the physical level

A

Movements e.g. washing hands

207
Q

How is OCD understood at the environmental / behavioural level

A

Learning experiences

208
Q

How is OCD understood at the physiological level

A

Abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes

209
Q

How is OCD understood at the neurochemical level

A

Underproduction of serotonin

210
Q

Name the psychology hierarchy of science in order

A

Sociology
Psychology
Biology
Chemistry
Physics

211
Q

In reductionism what is each level more than the one before it

A

Reductionist

212
Q

What is biological reductionism

A

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour at the lowest biological level

213
Q

What levels of explanation are included in biological reductionism (2)
What are the 2 other influences

A

Neurochemical and physiological levels as well as evolutionary and genetic influences

214
Q

How do biologically reductionist arguments usually work

A

Backwards

215
Q

Give an example with OCD of biologically reductionist arguments working backwards

A

Drugs that increase serotonin have been found to be effective in treating OCD.
Working backwards - low serotonin may be the cause of OCD.

216
Q

What type of reductionism is the behaviourist approach built on

A

Environmental reductionism

217
Q

What is environmental reductionism

A

The attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience.

218
Q

Give an example of the stimulus-response and conditioning in attachment and feeding of babies

A

The learning theory of attachment reduces the idea of love (between baby and feeder) to a learned association between the feeder (neutral stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus) resulting in pleasure (conditioned response).

219
Q

What is one limitation of the holism approach

A

It may lack practical value

220
Q

What is the issue with the holistic approach and its practical value in therapy

A

There are many factors that contribute to depression
It is hard to know which is the most influential
Difficult to know what to prioritise in therapy

221
Q

What is one strength of the reductionist approach

A

They often form the basis of a scientific approach

222
Q

What do we need to do to variables to conduct well-controlled research

A

Operationalise variables

223
Q

Having operationalise variables allows us to conduct experiements or record observations in a way that is____

A

Objective and reliable

224
Q

What is the counterpoint to the reductionist approach often forming the basis of a scientific approach

A

Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena

225
Q

What does oversimplifying complex phenomena do to validity

A

Reduces it

226
Q

What do explanations that operate at the level of the gene or neurotransmitter fail to include

A

An analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs - and this is were behaviour may derive its meaning.

227
Q

What does explanations operating only at one level in reductionism mean about findings

A

They can only ever form part of an explanation

228
Q

What is a limitation of reductionism

A

Some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level.

229
Q

Aspects of social behaviour may only emerge within what type of context

A

Group context

230
Q

Give an example of where a social behaviour is only visible within group context
Example experiment

A

The effects of conformity to social rules
Stanford prison experiment

231
Q

What is the idiographic approach

A

An approach to research that focuses more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour.

232
Q

What is the nomothetic approach

A

Aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws.

233
Q

What is the effect of the idiographic-normothetic debate on research methods

A

Whether an individual in depth or a larger group and discussion of averages is studied in research

234
Q

What is the usual number of participants in idiographic research

A

Small, often a single case ( single person, group or institution)

235
Q

Do generalisations occur in idiographic research

A

Yes but the initial focus is about understanding the individual

236
Q

Is idiographic research concerned with quantitive or qualitative research

A

Qualitative

237
Q

Describe the style of interview is used most commonly in idiographic research

A

Unstructured interview - in depth on one person about their experience

238
Q

What happens to the data in idiographic research (2 things)

A

It is analysed and emergent themes are identified.

239
Q

What approaches is the idiographic approach most associated with in psychology

A

The humanistic and psychodynamic approach

240
Q

Who looked at explaining the process of self-development and used an idiographic approach

A

Carl Roger’s

241
Q

What was Roger’s method when looking at the process of self-development
What type of approach was this

A

In-depth conversations with clients in therapy
Idiographic

242
Q

What famous psychologist also used the idiographic approach
What were they investigating

A

Freud
Explanations of human nature

243
Q

What is the main aim of the nomothetic approach

A

To create ‘laws’ that can be applied to individual situations

244
Q

Does the nomothetic approach use quantitive or qualitative research

A

Quantitive

245
Q

Does the idiographic or nomothetic approach best fit with scientific method

A

Nomothetic

246
Q

How would research for the nomothetic approach take place
(4 stages)

A

Hypothesis formulated
Samples of people assessed in some way
Numerical data produced
Data is analysed for statistical significance

247
Q

What type of interview would most likely take place in the nomothetic approach

A

Structured questionnaires

248
Q

What two psychological approches are nomothetic

A

Behaviourist and biological

249
Q

Who used the nomothetic approach to create the general laws of learning

A

B.F. Skinner

250
Q

How was Skinner’s method inline with the nomothetic approach

A

Research looked at one aspect in behaviour in a few animals
BUT the main aim was to establish general laws

251
Q

Does objectivity lie at the heart of the idiographic or nomothetic approach

A

Nomothetic

252
Q

Laws of behaviour in the nomothetic approach are only possible if…

A

Methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised and objective way

253
Q

What do researchers working in the idiographic approach believe about objectivity

A

That objectivity in psychological research is possible.

254
Q

What is one strength to the idiographic approach

A

It contributes to the nomothetic approach

255
Q

How does the idiographic approach compliment the nomothetic approach

A

By shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws.

256
Q

Describe how an idiographic approach may help a nomothetic approach with hypothesis

A

A single case may generate a hypothesis for further study and may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to our overall understanding.

257
Q

Can the idiographic approach help form scientific laws of behaviour

A

Yes

258
Q

What is a counterpoint to the strength of the idiographic approach

A

Supporters of the idiographic approach should still acknowledge the narrow and restricted nature of their work.

259
Q

What else is required to make a meaningful generalisation from the idiographic approach
Why

A

Further examples
Without further examples there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour

260
Q

Why are methods associated with the idiographic approach have the least scientific conclusions

A

They rely on the subjective interpretation of the researchers and are open to bias.

261
Q

What is one strength of both the idiographic and nomothetic approach

A

They fit with the aims of science

262
Q

What is it called when findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity

A

Triangulation

263
Q

What is one limitation to the nomothetic approach

A

Loss of understanding of the individual

264
Q

Give an example with schizophrenia of where the individual is lost in the nomothetic approach

A

Knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone who has been diagnosed

265
Q

When is understanding the subjective experience for schizophrenia crucial

A

When it comes to devising appropriate treatment options

266
Q

What was established to protect participants and guide researchers

A

Ethical guidelines

267
Q

What are ethical implications

A

The consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded.

268
Q

What is a wider scale in which ethical implications may occur

A

Wider societal level

269
Q

When do ethical implications apply in research

A

They apply within all research

270
Q

Some ares of research may have greater ___ than others

A

Social sensitivity

271
Q

what is socially sensitive research

A

Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.

272
Q

Who defined social sensitivity

A

Sieber and Stanley (1988)

273
Q

Who may a study on depression have consequences for (3 things)

A

May have consequences in terms of individual participants, the wider social group they represent and for social policy

274
Q

Does all psychological research have potential consequences

A

Yes

275
Q

What are three important stages of planning to consider when thinking of social sensitivity

A

Research question
Dealing with participants
The way in which findings are used

276
Q

Who made a warning about the way in which research questions are phrased

A

Joan Sieber and Barbara Stanley (1988)

277
Q

What did Sieber and Stanly state about the way in which research questions are phrased

A

The way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted

278
Q

Who noted that research into relationships has a heterosexual bias

A

Celia Kitzinger and Adrian Coyle (1995)

279
Q

What did Kitzinger and Coyle state about ‘heterosexual bias’ in research questions

A

Research into relationships has been guilty of a form of ‘heterosexual bias’ within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms.

280
Q

What issues under dealing with participants may be especially important in socially sensitive research (3)

A

Informed consent
Confidentiality
Psychological harm

281
Q

What may a person worry about in research on domestic abuse - example for dealing with participants

A

May worry that an ex-partner will find out about the study and it is likely to be extremely stressful for participants to describe their experiences.

282
Q

Why is a participant providing informed consent not enough for some research

A

Participants may provide informed consent at the start of the study but not fully understand the effect of the research

283
Q

Why is it important that researchers consider the way in which their findings are used
(2 things - aiding research and prejudice)

A

May impact on what data they actually collect.
Findings from research may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices

284
Q

Give an example of a scientific study giving scientific credence to existing prejudices

A

Studies examining the ethnic basis of intelligence (IQ testing WW2)

285
Q

What is the link between psychological information and media interest

A

The media tends to be more interested in and will publicise more sensitive information

286
Q

Give an example of when research got particular media attention
(Who, why so much attention)

A

Adrian Owen’s research on people in a minimally concious state.
It apprehend he has made contact with patients who were thought to be unreachable.

287
Q

What are two strengths of socially sensitive research

A

It can have benefits for the group who have been studies
Certain groups rely on research related to socially sensitive issues

288
Q

Who conducted an experiment that is an example of socially sensitive research having benefits for the group who have been studied

A

Kinsey et al. (1948)

289
Q

What was the method of the Kinsey report

A

Anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour

290
Q

What did the Kinsey report conclude

A

Homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour

291
Q

What data did the Kinsey report do to report about women

A

Included data on interviews with 6000 women

292
Q

Why was their outrage towards the Kinsey report

A

These were topics that no one discussed

293
Q

What was the Kinsey report’s impact on the DSM

A

In 1952 the DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a ‘sociopathic personality disorder’
Removed it in 1973 - credit given to the Kinsey report.

294
Q

What is the counterpoint to socially sensitive research having benefits for the group who have been studied

A

In some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied, which in some cases could have been anticipated.

295
Q

What is an example for negative consequences for the groups being studied.

A

Research investigating the genetic bias of criminality has found a ‘criminal gene’.
If true does it mean someone could be convicted because they have the gene of should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrong doing?

296
Q

Who looks to research when developing important social policies

A

The government

297
Q

Give examples of when the government might look to research when developing important social policies (4)

A

Child care, education, mental health provision, crime

298
Q

Name the independent group in the UK who are doing research for the government social policies

A

ONS
Office for National Statistics

299
Q

How do ONS describe themselves / what do they do

A

Responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UKs economy, society and population.

300
Q

What is one limitation to social sensitive research

A

Poor research design may lead to erroneous findings, which once’s in the public area, continue to have an impact.

301
Q

Who conducted research that shows poor research design leading to erroneous findings

A

Cyril Burt (1955)

302
Q

What was Burt influential in establishing

A

The 11+ exam which determines what type of secondary school a child goes to.

303
Q

What was the fraud in Burt’s findings on the 11+ exam

A

The data later revealed that much of it was fake
Including 2 imaginary research assistants and he was publicly discredited

304
Q

What happened to the 11+ exam after Burt’s fraud was exposed

A

11+ continued to be used.
The 11+ is still used as a selection tool in parts of the UK today (Kent, Belfast)

305
Q

Why did Burt’s ‘results’ suggest its an 11+ exam

A

Suggested that this is when genetic potential has released itself

306
Q

What was the American Psychological Association’s (APA 2001) report on ethical committees

A

Ethical committees approved 95% of non-sensitive proposals that didn’t include ethical problem’s whereas ‘sensitive’ proposals were only approved about 50% of the time.

PAPER 3 - PSYCHOLOGY (4 decks)

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