issues and debates Flashcards
gender bias (ao1)
gender bias - the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences
alpha bias - an alpha bias refers to theories that overestimate or exaggerate the differences between males and females
beta bias - refers to theories that ignore or minimise/under estimate sex differences, often assume the findings from male samples can apply to females
androcentrism - theories centred on males, gender bias may result in androcentrism which believes that male behaviour is the norm and therefore typical female behaviour is abnormal, alpha and beta are consequences of this
universality - believing that some behaviours are the same for both genders and can/should be applied to both
alpha bias examples:
beta bias examples:
asch and zimbardos study both used a large sample of male participants and generalised the findings to women
androcentric examples:
the American psychological association published a list of the 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century which only included 6 women, traditionally psych is a subject produced by men, for men, about men
gender bias (ao3)
+by developing a greater understanding of gender bias we are able to put forward a number of solutions to help combat the gender stereotypes and bias
+ worrell introduced a number of research criteria that are important to ensure no gender bias for example studying in natural settings, exploring personally relevant variables, studying diverse samples
- not challenged, for example Darwins theory of sexual selection says women are more choosy but dan evidence is only recently challenging this and saying they are equally competitive, is sexual selection lacking temporal validity or gender bias
culture bias (ao1)
culture - the norms, values, beliefs, patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people
cultural bias - tendency to judge people in terms of ones own cultural assumptions
ethnocentrism - seeing the world from only ones own cultural perspective and believing that only this one perspective is correct/superior
cultural relativism - idea that a behaviour can only be understood in the context of the norms of the culutre
universality - applies to all irrespective of culture
etic approach - looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe behaviours as universal
emic approach - functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to the culture
ethnocentrism examples:
rack - African carribeans in Britain are often diagnosed as mentally ill on the basis of behaviour which is normal in their subculture but perceived as abnormal to others because of the ignorance of African Caribbean subculture by white psychiatrists
Ainsworth - strange situation developed to assess attachment types by an American psychologist, tested in many countries during a meta analysis, however assumes jay it has the same meaning for infants in these other cultures - found an obvious difference between individualistic cultures and collectivist cultures, therefore strange situation is an imposed tic where a theory is developed in one culture and imposed on another
cultural relativism examples:
asch/zimbardo - uses only American participants but generalises the behaviours of conformity to all people.
universality examples:
buss - surveyed 10 000 participants in 33 countries to support his theory on sexual selection, research and findings can be seen as universal.
culture bias (ao3)
idiographic approach (ao1)
taking an idiographic approach means to focus on the individual and emphasise on the unique personal experiences of each human and respect we are all different. does not make comparisons with others or a large group or generalise results and findings to others to formulate new laws.
instead they favour qualitative research methods and data such as case studies, unstructured interviews and thematic analysis to gain a deep insight into the individual’s behaviour.
main examples include:
case studies such as patient KF - experienced a motorbike accident and suffered damage to his short term memory, his forgetting of auditory memory was worse than visual memory suggesting stm contains many components, can be used as evidence for the multi store memory model and highlights flaws within other theories.
freud’s case studies of little Hans - boy had a phobia of horses but when investigated further found that it was actually an unconscious fear of his father from similarities he found between the horse and his father, he was able to find the source of the phobia from his unique childhood experience.
idiographic approach (ao3)
+ provides a complete and global account of the individual using in depth qualitative methods, can then be used as evidence to support or challenge nomothetic theories
- unable to produce general laws or predictions about human behaviour, limits usefulness as a source of practical knowledge about a disorder and its treatment
- criticised for its unscientific nature as it fails to have the emphasis on in depth data collection and arriving at justifiable generalisations contradicting the central purpose of a science
- case studies can be extremely time consuming and cannot be generalised to other cases as they are unique experiences from the individual meaning though they are helpful evidence they can be limited and unrepresentative.
+there may also be a false distinction between the two stances, instead we should view them as complementary rather than contradictory, cognitive psychologists have taken a nomothetic approach to create general laws of cognitive processes (working memory) whilst using an idiographic stance by having case studies like KF to provide evidence to their theories.
nomothetic approach (ao1)
nomothetic approach consists of studying a large sample of participants and producing quantitative data and using this to generate/substantiate general laws and models of behaviour, inferences about wider population and predictions about human behaviour
main approach within scientifically oriented psychology
main examples include:
asch- used large sample (123pp), created general conclusions about conformity behaviour, able to predict in what situations we would conform (group size, task ambiguity), helped produce the model of NSI
Ainsworth - studied strange situation in attachments, concluded that there are 3 types of attachments by studying large sample of 108 infants and their mothers
nomothetic approach (ao3)
+ considered quite scientific, uses experimental quantitative methods, controlled measurement which also allow for reliability checks
- generalisation, treatments such as anti depressants for depression may not work on all patients, argued that taking an idiographic approach to find alternative treatments are more suitable to understand the condition of the disorder of the specific patient, nomothetic stance not always relevant and successful
-loses sight of the whole person due to fixation on quantitive data and statistical analysis, provides a superficial understanding of human behaviour
+there may also be a false distinction between the two stances, instead we should view them as complementary rather than contradictory, cognitive psychologists have taken a nomothetic approach to create general laws of cognitive processes (working memory) whilst using an idiographic stance by having case studies like KF to provide evidence to their theories.
free will (ao1)
free will is the idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave, the assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self determined.
this belief does not deny there may be biological and environmental forces that exert some influence on our behaviour but instead implies we are able to reject these forces as in control of our own destiny
a key example is the humanistic approach which argues that self determination is a necessary part of human behaviour and without it self development and actualisation are not possible
another is that it is the basis of moral responsibility which is when an individual is in charge of their own actions and can exercise their own free will, humans are accountable for their actions regardless of innate factors or the influence of early experiences barring children and those with mental conditions.
free will (ao3)
+ has face validity as we are constantly exercising our free will through the choices we make
+ has solid application to the legal system which states that all citizens are responsible for their actions at the age of 10 onwards, suggesting we all have free will and choose to be criminals, makes sense as if this was not the case criminals would be able to roam around freely.
- neurological studies have revealed evidence against free will, studies have demonstrated that the brain activity that decides the outcome of some choices may occur earlier than our knowledge of actually making the choice, suggesting that our decisions are determined venire we ice name then supporting a strong contradiction of free will.
determinism (ao1)
determinism is the general idea that our traits and behaviours are outside of our control, due to internal or external factors that we have no control over, therefore proposing free will has no place in explaining our behaviour
there are 2 main types - hard and soft determinism
soft determinism - alternative position favoured by many psychologists, behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain extent, there os also an element of choice
hard determinism - sometimes referred to as fatalism suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and in principle should be possible to identify and describe all these causes, always assumes that everyone we thing and do is dictated by internal/external factors we cannot control
3 types of hard determinism - biological, environmental and psychic
biological determinism - all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes/hormones/biological processes within the body
environmental determinism - behaviour is determined or caused by forces outside the individual, emphasises that behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through conditioning
psychic - traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives, the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences
determinism (ao3)
+consistent with the aims of a science, notion that human behaviour is orderly and obeys models and laws makes psychology more scientific, biological determinism can be tested for abnormalities which would show up on brain scans or body scans and can then show a cause for difference in behaviour
+ value of schizophrenic research has led to drug treatments to help manage and control their symptoms, these patients show loss of control over their thoughts, therefore cannot be exercising any form of free will but instead symptoms can be helped using drugs show it is biological determinism causing it
- lacks consistency with the way in which our legal system works, offenders are held accountable for their actions however determinism emphasises we have no control over our actions and we would have no choice whether to be a criminal or not
- approach is not always falsifiable as it is based on the idea that causes for the behaviour exist even if they haven’t been found yet. therefore it is difficult to prove wrong as a principle making the deterministic approach less scientific
nature (ao1)
takes the view that our behaviour is the product of innate, biological or genetic factors
it is founded in the nativist theory and investigates the fact that psychological characteristics may be wired in before we are born like some physical characteristics (eye colour, blood group)
we can study behaviours using a nature approach by looking at brain scans and dna analysis for specific genes, or can be studied using twin adoption studies
twin studies were used to find a biological link to causing schizophrenia and they found the stark difference of a 40% concordance rate in monozygotic twins compared to a 7% concordance rate in dizygotic twins, indicating a significant genetic component in causing schizophrenia
nature (ao3)
+one strength of the debate is the interactions approach, this is the widely accepted theory that explains that genetic factors and environmental influences do not act independently, instead the influence of both are essential to all behaviours. this has allowed researchers to direct their research into the interactions between nature and nurture rather than contradicting each other
+the research into epigenetics is another key example of how the two stances work together rather than against each other, epigenetics refers to changes in our genetic activity, not from mutations or a change in our genetic code but instead from an interaction with the environment that leaves epigenetic marks on our DNA, this mark can influence our genetics causing changes and adaptions whilst also having the ability to show the experiences of previous generations, sparking the idea whether our family and other generations have an impact like nature and nurture.
- nativists argue that our anatomy is destiny and the environment has little input into our behaviours, this determinist view led to controversy in linking race, genetics and intelligence and the application of the eugenics policy - this explains we should be careful blaming nature for peoples behaviours as it can lead to controversial policies which may disadvantage certain members
-similarly empiricists would argue that any behaviour can be changed through behaviour shaping and modification using certain therapies - however this theory almost views humans as puppets and prisoners of their own environment.
nurture (ao1)
the nurture side of the argument takes the view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences which is founded in the empiricist theory
the empiricist theory argues that knowledge and behaviour derives from learning and experience
environmentalists explain that behavioural differences occur through learning via conditioning based on environmental stimuli
one example of learnt behaviours through conditioning is forming the attachment between the infant and primary caregiver through classical conditioning, this happens because the unconditioned stimulus of food becomes associated with the neutral stimulus of the mother on the basis of receiving pleasure from the food. this example demonstrates behaviours are learnt through past experiences and our childhood.
nurture (ao3)
+one strength of the debate is the interactions approach, this is the widely accepted theory that explains that genetic factors and environmental influences do not act independently, instead the influence of both are essential to all behaviours. this has allowed researchers to direct their research into the interactions between nature and nurture rather than contradicting each other
+the research into epigenetics is another key example of how the two stances work together rather than against each other, epigenetics refers to changes in our genetic activity, not from mutations or a change in our genetic code but instead from an interaction with the environment that leaves epigenetic marks on our DNA, this mark can influence our genetics causing changes and adaptions whilst also having the ability to show the experiences of previous generations, sparking the idea whether our family and other generations have an impact like nature and nurture.
- nativists argue that our anatomy is destiny and the environment has little input into our behaviours, this determinist view led to controversy in linking race, genetics and intelligence and the application of the eugenics policy - this explains we should be careful blaming nature for peoples behaviours as it can lead to controversial policies which may disadvantage certain members
-similarly empiricists would argue that any behaviour can be changed through behaviour shaping and modification using certain therapies - however this theory almost views humans as puppets and prisoners of their own environment.
holism (ao1)
holism is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a while integrated experience, and not as separate parts
emphasises that we should not try to understand the person, behaviour or experience by breaking it down
key example is the humanistic approach which argues that humans react to stimuli as an organised whole rather than as a set of stimulus response links, and uses qualitative methods to investigate all aspects of the individual rather than breaking it down.
holism (ao3)
+ there are aspects of social behaviour that can only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood by looking and analysing each member - eg conformity and de individuation, therefore should be an approach taken especially in social psychology
+attempts to blend different levels of explanations as these theories attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour, eg sz by looking at the combination of factors of genes,upbringing, trauma allows us to understand the complexity and how a combination of treatments may be more beneficial
-do not lend themselves to rigorous scientific testing and can become vague and complex, humanistic approach behaviour can be difficult to test scientifically and is criticised for being a loose set of concepts
-do not establish causation as they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured, viewed as unscientific
-by taking a holistic view we may miss certain things that could have been found by breaking down the issue meaning that it may be hard to decide treatment or treatment is inefficient.
reductionism (ao1)
reductionism is the idea that to understand a person, their behaviours and experiences should be broken down and analysed individually (THE BREAKING DOWN OF BEHAVIOUR INTO ITS CONSTITUENT PARTS)
reductionism is based on the idea of parsimony which emphasises that usually the simplest, easiest and most economical solution is the best.
There are two main types of reductionism:
biological reductionism - the way biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones and brain structures
often explanations of psychological disorders are biologically reductionist as they offer genes and neurochemistry as the main cause
environmental reductionism - behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to simple building blocks of stimulus response associations and complex behaviours stem from a series of these chains
for example the behaviour of attachments is believed to come down to a stimulus response link where the mother becomes a conditioned stimulus associated with the pleasure from feeding
levels of psychology (ao1)
almost all behaviours can be considered at different levels of explanation, these levels vary from the most reductionist (looking at basic components) to those at a higher more holistic level (considering a range of interacting factors)
the levels of explanation in ascending order are biological reductionism (genetics, neurochemistry, anatomical changes), environmental reductionism (environment, childhood, family), machine reductionism (cognitive explanations, human mind vs computer), holism (combination)
we can use the example of the cause of schizophrenia to look more in detail at this
biological - genetics, high/low dopamine, damage to hippocampus
environmental - family dysfunction, schizophrenogenic mother
machine - dysfunctional thought process, hallucinations, delusions
holism - interactionist approach, diathesis stress model, combination of genes/environment/trauma
reductionism (ao3)
+both biological and environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific, breaking down the complex behaviours into small constituent parts means they can be scientifically tested and explanations based on scientific evidence can be formed
+ biological reductionism has led to development of biological therapies, we have found ssri’s to be more effective than placebos for treating ocd, and has provided relief and reduced anxiety for ocd patients, real world application
-biological reductionism can lead to errors of understanding as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour, eg treating conditions like adhd with drugs with the belief that the condition is nothing more than a neurochemical imbalance may be mistaking its true cause, the success rates of drug therapy are so highly variable showing that the purely biological understanding is inadequate
-most of the relevant research in the behaviourist tradition has made use of non human animals as subject, a key example being the pavlov experiments, however can we consider human behaviour as just a scaled up version of the behaviour of dogs and rats, therefore some consider the reductionist position as if not incorrect, clearly inadequate.
ethical implications (ao1)
ethical issues may arise when there is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable research findings whilst preserving the rights and dignity of participants,
therefore ethical guidelines exist to protect those involved however psychologists may follow all of these yet still have limited control on the presentation of the findings and study in the media, impact of findings on public police, and how findings impact the perception of particular groups
the ethical implications of psychological research are:
effects of research on participants
effects of publication on wider public
potential use of findings (allocation of resources)
potential use of findings (political consequences/ legislation changes)
potential bias against people of certain culutres/socioeconomic background
potential influence on moral attitudes towards individual/social/ethnic groups
economic implications (further research, funding)
examples:
bowlby research into maternal deprivation - assumed the primary caregiver must be mother and must be with the infant in the critical period otherwise the child would suffer maternal deprivation, places undue pressure on mothers to not go back to work
milgrams obedience research - was done to prove germans are different hypothesis by saying Americans would not obey authority whilst believing they were causing death like the germans obeyed hitler, milgram made these assumptions and this may cause other nationalities to frown upon germans and view them as bad
biological research into addiction/offending - raises issue of who is to blame if it is inherited, those who are addicts or offenders may be looked down upon by society.
ethical implications (ao3)
+ has ensured that research is conducted in a much more sensitive manner and has resulted in the protection of the health and dignity of participants and reputation of psychology, eg studies like milgrams or zimbardos would be unlikely to be carried out now unless they were carefully controlled to reduce any lasting damaging effects
+ by understanding the ethical implications we can use cost benefit analysis to decide whether the research is worth carrying out, as if the costs outweigh the benefits there is no reason to carry out the experiment saving funding, time and resources
- sometimes it is not possible to see what the effects of the research may be on the researchers, participants and society, makes it hard to judge. not a very objective decision and may cause bias from decision makers, for example, zimbardo was unaware of the lasting effects his experiment would cause meaning that it was unlikely the results could have been prevented but after he did debrief participants and held meetings for a 6 moth period after to help with any psychological damage.
- some people have criticised the ethical guidelines set for research permission for being too strict, there are areas of psychology which could elicit helpful findings and could benefit a lot of people however the research cannot be conducted due to the process potentially causing ethical implications, therefore it is difficult to find a balance.
social sensitivity (ao1)
socially sensitive research looks at studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research leading to prejudice and discrimination
when research is socially sensitive it is important to deal with issues like informed consent, psychological harm and confidentiality, additionally researchers should consider the way they use their findings ad the impact on the data they gather, especially important if the findings give scientific credibility to existing prejudices as this could cause even more prejudice.
examples of socially sensitive research:
bowlbys research on attachment and maternal deprivation - emphasises that women should encouraged to stay at home and look after their children otherwise they would suffer maternal deprivation based on the laws of accumulated separation and continuity, in fact due to this research after ww11 government policies were put in place where mothers were told to stay at home for the first 5 years of the Childs life
research into relationships - mainly focuses on heterosexual relationships and any research on homosexual relationships is compared against the data on heterosexual relationships, for example evolutionary explanations which focuses on intra and intersexual selection, however this may not apply to homosexual couples who are not choosing a partner based on producing offspring.
