approaches Flashcards
discuss the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in psychology ao1
Cognitive neuroscience definition: The scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes. Area of the brain can be mapped to locate specific cognitive functions
• Neuroscience emerged in 1971
• Miller (1991) first used the term, cognitive neuroscience in order to bridge the gap between cognitive science and
neuroscience.
• Cognitive neuroscience looks at the biological basis of thought processes - how the influence of neurons that can be
involved in developing thought processes. It combines the cognitive approach with some elements of the biological
approach.
• The mind is like a computer - cognitive neuroscience includes computer generated models which can read the brain and
help develop mind mapping and brain finger printing.
• Cognitive neuroscience has evolved as technology has advanced when studying the brain.
• Different methods to study the brain - lesion studies where brain damaged patients and their brain is investigated,
neuroimaging whereby parts of the brain can be investigated for activation, whilst a patient is performing a task.
• We can now study the living brain and get detailed information about mental processing in action through Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI scans) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET).
origins of psychology - ao1
psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and its functions; especially affecting behaviour in a given context.
science is a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation with the aim to discover new laws.
wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist with ideas stemming from philosophical roots. he opened the first experimental psychological laboratory in germany which helped shape psychology as a science by aiding the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions for reliability.
he devised the process of introspection which is the first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images, and sensations. was recorded under strictly controlled conditions to ensure it was investigated similar to sciences, and only focused on present experiences.
using this he was able to focus on perception and structuralism
origins of psychology - ao3
+ it’s scientific and there’s high control of variables in labs
+ Introspection can establish causes for behaviour and helps predict behaviour, aiding in preventing things like OCD
+ Still used in the modern day and can be applied to contemporary therapy showing a useful outcome
- produces subjective data and varies from one individual to the next – isn’t reliable or objective
- Fails to explain how the mind works and the processes involved in thinking about a particular topic or activity. Cannot see how thoughts are generated and introspection cannot be properly observed.
behaviourist approach, classical conditioning - ao1
pavlov salivating dogs, learnt to salivate after hearing bell ring from classical conditioning
behaviourist approach, classical conditioning - ao3
+ supporting evidence from little albert study
behaviourist approach, operant conditioning - ao1
a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by consequences, consequences include punishment and positive/negative reinforcement
skinner conducted research on pigeons and rats using the skinner box
skinner box was a cage which has loud speakers, lights, levers, a door, a floor which could be electrified
when rat presses lever they recieve food pellet and so continously press lever to recieve food (posotive reinforcement)
rat also learnt that lever could be pressed to avoid something unpleasant such as recieving electric shock from floor (negative reinforcement)
extinction meant that when the rat pressed the lever it would no longer recieve food causing rat to stop pressing lever
spontaneuos recovery means after extinction if the rat presses the lever and recieves food it will realise the link and recover what it had previously learnt
continuous reinforcement means everytime rat presses lever it gets food
fixed interval means that the rat presses the lever and only recieves food during a fixed time
fixed ratio means rat must press lever a fixed number of times to get food
behaviourist approach, operant conditioning - ao3
+ supported by nurture side is nature vs nurture, learning occurs due to environtmental factors and external stimuli
+ skinner box used higly controlled conditions to find relationship between variabkes
-ignores biologiclal approach as it would argue that behaviour cannot be learnt and instead is heavily influenced by genes, hormones
- ignores concept of free will and instead suggests past experiences will affect future behaviour and that individuals have no control over their actions and behaviours, deterministic view on behvaviour
behaviourist approach, social learning - ao1
Proposed by Bandura (1977)
Key points of social learning theory: modelling, identification, vicarious reinforcement, imitation
Places importance on cognitive mediational processes – attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation
Bobo doll experiment (1961) à observational study with 36 male and female children, where they observed non-aggressive/acts with bobo doll
1st condition: Aggressive model displayed aggressive acts to bobo doll (eg striking with mallet), made to feel frustrated
2nd condition: Non-aggressive acts
Made to go into a room with lots of toys (eg bobo doll, mallet) and observed for 20 mins
Results: Those who observed the aggressive model reproduced this behaviour, those who didn’t did not
33% of children who heard verbal aggression repeated this, 0% did not do this in the non-aggressive group
behaviourist approach, social learning - ao3
+ Fox (2009) -> Evidence that social learning is more effective when the observer & model are similar
+ More comprehensive than operant conditioning & classical conditioning -> recognises mediational processes
+ Conducted in a laboratory experiment with highly controlled variables, increases validity and can be replicated in the future
- Does not take into account cause & effect -> Delinquency & poor attitudes
- Ethical issues, psychological harm towards children, may wish to inflict harm on others as they have seen a model do it, which may have negative consequences and punishment in the future, weren’t debriefed
- environmental determinalism -> sees behaviour as determined by the environment
cognitive approach, study of internal mental processes ao1
cognitive psychologists often invvestigate internal mental processes by using the methods of laboratory and field experiments
they use inferences about cognitive internal processes which means they might make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
information is received through the senses and is processed by the brain
schemas are packets of information/ideas/cognitive frameworks that are developed through experience and expectations about how we should behave, can cause us to exclude anything that does not conform to our ideas
study of the role of schemas by bartlett (1932)
study conducted in a lab, english participants asked to read native american folk tale ‘the war of the ghosts’ participants read the story and then after different lengths of time asked to recall the story to test schemas and recall, study showed that all english participants changed story to fit their own schema
conclusion to this study is that people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information and this is dependent upon culture.
cognitive approach, study of internal mental processes ao3
+ emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data, this means that high levels of control can be exercised and cause and effect relationships can be identified between the independent and dependent variables
+
- ## can be criticised because of the biased sample, only english participants were used therefore the findings cannot be generalised to other samples around the world, results are narrow and biased and do not give a hollistic view of different culutres and schemas
cognitive approach, theoretical computer models and emergence of computer neuroscience ao1
Cognitive neuroscience definition: The scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes. Area of the brain can be mapped to locate specific cognitive functions
Neuroscience emerged in 1971
Miller (1991) first used the term, cognitive neuroscience in order to bridge the gap between cognitive science and neuroscience.
Cognitive neuroscience looks at the biological basis of thought processes - how the influence of neurons that can be involved in developing thought processes. It combines the cognitive approach with some elements of the biological approach.
The mind is like a computer - cognitive neuroscience includes computer generated models which can read the brain and help develop mind mapping and brain finger printing.
Cognitive neuroscience has evolved as technology has advanced when studying the brain.
Different methods to study the brain - lesion studies where brain damaged patients and their brain is investigated, neuroimaging whereby parts of the brain can be investigated for activation, whilst a patient is performing a task.
We can now study the living brain and get detailed information about mental processing in action through Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI scans) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET).
Maguire did a study in 2000 on the brains on taxi drivers to see if the anatomy was predetermined or if it was plastic and able to change due to the environment, in his study this was driving a taxi
They studied spatial navigation and aimed to see if structural changes of the hippocampus be detected in the brain of experienced drivers
They used 32 males and 16 of these were taxi drivers and 16 weren’t. they took an MRI of the brain and found the right posterior hippocampus in taxi drivers were larger than the control group.
The cognitive approach used to study the mind by making assumptions about mental processes that cannot directly be observed
Behaviour is understood by inferences of data about feelings and self recorded thoughts
This approach consists of Schemas which are pockets of information developed through experiences and expectations about how we should behave and how our mind organise and interprets vast amounts of information
There are two types including role schemas which are about behaviour expected from someone in a particular role, and event schemas which are based on what to expect from an event
The information processing model consists of input, processing, output
Input is when our senses encode information from the environment
Processing is when you process this information via schemas
Output is when our behavioural response occurs
cognitive approach, theoretical computer models and emergence of computer neuroscience ao3
+Emphasises scientific methods, such as lab experiments and collecting data, high level of control, identify cause and effect, and independent and dependent variables
+Supported by scientific research -> Brain scans eg fMRI, PET scans - objective
+
- Ignores other models, focus heavy on internal mental process, biological ignored
- Can be criticised as it does not give a full picture about what is happening in the mind, need to make inferences
-Can be criticised as it uses computer models - humans and computers are very different so inaccurate to compare
biological approach. influence of genes and evolution ao1
genetics:
genotype - the genetic code written in the dna of individual cells, which are inherited from biological parents
phenotype - characteristics of an individual is determined by expression of physical, behavioural and psychological traits
individuals inherit certain characteristics
studied using twin studies to show concordance rattes
gottesman and shields investigated 224 sets of twins some mz and some dz, 120 male 104 female, aversge age of 46, one twin had schizophrenia concrodance rates investigated to examine and determine the likelihood of the other twin developing it, 48% of mz were concordant, 17% of dz were concordant
evolution:
darwin focused on natural selection and adaptiveness to the environment over time
genetic makeup can randomly mutate due to factor in the envirinment and could lead to characteristic change in future generations
change means chances of survival and reproductuion are greater meaning gene will be passed on and is adaptive
adaptiveness is important because individuals compete with each other for resources and those who survive will reproduce - concept of survival of the fittest
biological approach, influence of genes and evolution ao3
+genetics help psychologists to detect potential cases early on through screening and gene mapping
-other models being ignored, someone may not have the gene for depression but the humanistic and cognitive approaches would suggest one could become depressed through negative thoughts and conditions
-evolution does not explain how some behaviours passed through inheritance may be considered adaptive for example it is found that ocd is inherited but it is not clear how this would aid survival
+heavily supported by the work of charles darwin and his giraffes and finches.
biological approach, influence of biological structures and neurochemistry ao1
biological structures:
neurons and the nervous system
pns/cns
the brain - made up of 4 lobes each looking after different functions
neural correlations - study found that schizophrenia may be due to structural and functional brain abnormalities
swayze reviewed 50 cases found smaller hypothalamus, less grey matter, decreased weight
neurochemistry:
involves hormones and neurotransmitters
eg dopamine causes schizophrenia, testosterone causes anger
dopamine hypothesis - schizophrenic patients seem to have high levels of dopamine and an abnormal dopamine metabolism, when given drugs like phenothiazines (dopamine blockers) symptoms seem to reduce, and when non psychotic people are given drugs like lsd (dopamine agonist) symptoms of schizophrenia arise.
biological approach, influence of biological structures and neurochemistry ao3
- cause and effect not established by swayze, schizophrenia caused by abnormalities or causes abnormalities
-dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is asociated with many mental disorders such as mania and depression in which symptoms are not alleviated by dopamine blockers, this suggests it has a more complex role in the brain.
+can be measured objectively and scientificslly through brain scanning and mris to see the structures and through spinal fluid extraction to see neurotransmitter levels.
psychodynamic approach, ao1
freud believed that the driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind, of which there are 3 levels - conscious (thoughts, feelings, memories that you are currently aware of), preconscious (thoughts, feelings, memories that you could access if you wanted to), unconscious
unconscious is largest part and is inaccessible, believed most of everyday actions are a product of this part which can be revealed through slips of the tongue (freudian slip), unconscious is driving force behind behaviour/personality, protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict, traumatic/repressed memories usually from childhood are stored in unconscious and drive behaviour,
personality according to freud is also split into a tripartite structure of the id, ego and superego which affect how a person behaves
id - formed between birth and 18months, in unconscious, focuses on self, selfish/irrational/emotional, operates on pleasure principle where deals with feelings and needs whilst seeking pleasure
ego - formed between 18months and 3years, in conscious minds, rational and maintains balance between id and superego, operates on reality principle
superego - formed between 3years and 6years, in unconscious mind, acts as a conscience/moral guide based on parental/societal values, operates on morality principle
defence mechanisms - stop an individual becoming consciously aware of any unpleasant thoughts/feelings/memories
repression - blocking of unacceptable thoughts but thoughts will still influence behaviour (not remembering abuse but cant form relationship)
denial - refusal to accept reality to avoid dealing with painful feelings (denying problems eg gambling)
displacement - focus of a strong emotion is expressed on a different person or object (kid in trouble might kick something or shout at someone)
psychosexual stages
oral (0-1) - focus of pleasure is mouth eg sucking biting, will become trusting and able to give/receive affection, will develop oral fixation eg smoking biting nails sarcastic
anal (1-3) - focus of pleasure is anus eg withholding and expelling faeces, will be able to deal with authority, will develop anal retentive/ expressive (perfectionist,obsessive/thoughtless,messy)
phallic (3-5) - focus of pleasure is gentials eg oedipus(castration anxiety) and electra(penis envy) complex, will adopt traits of same sex, will become narcissistic, reckless
latent (6-12) - focus on mastery of the world and social relationships, early years forgotten and conflicts repressed/resolved
genital (12+) - sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty, will become a well adjusted adult, will have difficulty forming relationships
psychodynamic approach, ao3
+ led to the development of psychoanalysis, a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders, laid the foundation for psychotherapy and modern day psychiatry
+ was the first systematic model that focused on psychological factors as a cause of abnormality as well as psychological treatments which helped to shape the behavioural and cognitive model
- freud focuses on childhood traumas as the sole cause of the abnormality and fails to acknowledge any current problems the patient is facing which may affect behaviour
- key concepts of the psychodynamic approach such as the unconscious mind and defence mechanisms lack falsifiability because they are unconscious and therefore difficult to test therefore cannot be seen measured observed and not very scientific
humanistic approach, ao1
developed by Maslow and Rogers
Maslow focused on a hierarchy of needs - a persons most basic psychological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and most advanced at the top, each level must be fulfilled before moving up to a higher need
psychological - food, water, warmth, rest
safety - security, safety
belongingness and love - intimate relationships, love
esteem - prestige, accomplishment
self actualisation - achieving ones full potential
self actualisation occurs when full potential is reached and person is the best version of themselves, concerns psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction, motivation to climb the hierarchy.
Rogers focuses on the concept of self and self acceptance
people have two basic needs, positive regard from others and feelings of self worth
feelings of self worth develop through childhood based on interactions with parents and may be influenced later in life through interactions with significant others (friends, spouses)
positive regard can be unconditional and conditional - unconditional is when person is accepted for who they are (parent unconditional positive regard for child), conditional is when conditions of worth are developed where it is believed by the individual that these have to be met in order to be accepted by others and will only achieve self acceptance if these are met
when there is similarity between perceived self and ideal self (how they view themselves and how they would like to be viewed) then there is congruence
if there is a difference between the perceived and ideal self the person experiences a state of incongruence which lead to negative feelings of slef worth
rare for complete state of congruence to exist
counselling psychology (rogers 1959)
claimed an individuals psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard, counselling would allow problems to be solved in a constructive way, therapists provide uncondtional positive regard allowing client to disslove their conditions of worth enabling the process to self acceptance and self actualisation
humanistic approach, ao3
+ focuses on personal growth and development, allowing people to uncover their true self and realise their true potential to gain clarity of their values aspirations goals
+ research support on the role of conditions of worth, harter et al found that teenagers felt they had to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval and as a result ended up not liking themselves leading to cases of depression.
- lacks scientific rigour, proposes that we should study the whole person as each person is unique however science relies on reductionism in order for the individual components to be studied objectively
- approach may be the product of the cultural context it was developed in, individualist cultures would asscoiate with these ideals much more readily compared to collectivist cultures which emphasise the needs of the community
- proposes concepts such as self actualisation with a lack of operationalisation, no clear objective measure of when actualisation has been reach meaning there is a lack of empirical evidence to support claims
