Issues and Debates Flashcards
define gender bias
the differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences
define alpha bias
exaggeration of differences between men and women.
consequent is that devaluation of one gender in comparison to the other
examples of alpha bias
Freud
- psychodynamic explanation
Freud states that since females do not experience castration anxiety that why are under less pressure and less of a need to identify with moral standards of the same sex parent
suggests that females are less more moral then males
examples of alpha bias
Wilson
theory of relationship formation suggest that sexual promiscuity in males id genetically determined whilst females that are promiscuous go against their nature
females need to be more selective when choosing their mates due to a limit supply of eggs
Therefore may lead to prejudice and stereotyping go women that engage in these behaviours
examples of alpha bias
Schizophrenia
schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men compared to women
women are more likely to continue working and maintaining good interpersonal relationships
therefore schizophrenic symptoms of women may be masked or not severe enough to merit a diagnosis
define androcentrism
consequence of beta bias and occurs when all behaviour is compared to male standard
examples of androcentrism
whilst male anger seems as a logical response , female emotion at PMS is trivialised
define beta bias
a tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women. theories tend to ignore questions about the lives of women or insights found from studies of men will be generalised to women
examples of beta bias
flight or fight
research of flight or fight exclusively used male lab mice, due to lower hormonal fluctuations =+ adrenaline so could are more reliably measured
However the results were generalised
examples of beta bias
Kolberg
levels of moral reasoning theory was developed on the basis of studying a group of males who answered questions based on moral dilemmas
these were generalised to both males and females
argument against gender bias
Bias in research methods
if theories are gender based the researcher may find differences between genders nut many not be the gender that differs but the method used to test or observe them
eg; being more pleasant and encouraging to female participants = perform better in tasks
argument for gender bias
avoiding beta bias
beta bias has allowed own greater access to education and occupation opportunities
However psychologists point out that arguing for equality draws attention away from women special needs (so beta bias can be a disadvantage to women)
argument against gender bias
need to be challenged
gender bias remains unchallenged
Darwins theory of sexual selection portray women as choose and arguing that women are coy whilst women are aggressive for competition
this view needs to be challenged as it has been found that women are equally competitive when needed - supported by DNA
define culture
the rules, customs and moral that bind together members of a society or some other collection of people
define culture bias
the tendency to judge all cultures and individuals in terms of our own cultural assumptions
define cultural relativism
the view that behaviour, morals , standards and values cannot be judged properly unless they re views in the context of the culture inn which they originate
example of cultural relativism
Milgram
Milligrams study of obedience was conducted using 40 American males but also replicated using Spanish and Australian students where the results differed
suggests that muilgrams original results were specifically bound to American cultures
cultural relativism
alpha and beta bias
can lead to alpha bias - assumption of real differences lead psychologists to overlook universals
can lead to beta bias - eg schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations but hearing voices can be cultural norm = by assuming that same rules apply universally we may diagnose some people as mentally ill but relative to their culture they are not
cross cultural research
alpha and beta bias
alpha example - distinction between individualist and collectivist cultures. different expectations from each culture (USA vs japan) BUT there was a study that did not support common idea
beta example - IQ tests to study intelligence in many different cultures so assume their view of intelligence applies equally to all cultures. results in non western people appearing less intelligent = imposed etic. the test is made for one group then imposed on another
define ethnocentrism
example of alpha bias and leads to beta bias
seeing things from the point of view of ourselves and our social group. using own standards and customs from own culture . can lead to prejudice and discrimination
example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth
strange situation is an example of culturalethnocentrism
suggests that secure attachment is only characterized by moderate separation and stranger anxiety . German children that showed little separation and stranger anxiety was deemed as due to cold and rejecting parenting
argument against culture bias
bias in research methods
Textbooks
smith and bond surveyed research in one European textbook on social psychology and found that 66% of studies were American, 32% European and 2% elsewhere
suggests that there is an almost institutionalized cultural bias as students would be learning about ‘universal’ behaviors that were demonstrated in only certain cultures
argument against cultural bias
consequences of cultural bias
IQ test
US army IQ test showed that European immigrants are seen as less intelligent. has had implications on attitudes held by Americans towards certain groups of people, leading to stereotyping
argument for culture bias
not all behaviors are affected by cultural bias
although there are differences in Asch study and milgram between collectivist and individualist, universal behaviors still exist
Ekman- attachment in interactional synchrony and reciprocity demonstrated that facial expressions for anger and guilt and disgust were universally recognized across all cultures
therefore to fully understand behaviors we must look both universal and culture bound examples
define determinism
belief that behaviour is controlled by external or internal factors acting upon the individual and beyond control.
-biological
-environmental
-psychic
define biological determinism
view that behavior is always caused by internal biological forces beyond our control , genes etc
genes which affect brain structure and neurotransmitter production (serotonin and dopamine ) will also determine behaviour
define environmental determinism
belief that behaviour is caused by previous experiences through classical and operant conditioning (little albert, operant conditioning example)
external forces we have no control over
define psychic determinism
freuds theory of personality suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences
result in unconscious conflicts over which we have no control
(eg Freud psychosexual stage of development that each stage is characterized by a conflict which can lead to fixation in adulthood if unresolved )
define free will
each individual has power to make choices about their behavior without being determined by internal or external forces beyond their control
humanistic approach
define hard determinism
view that all behavior can be predicted by internal or external forces beyond control so there is no free will
eg:
behaviorism suggests that all behavior is the product of conditioning
,biological approach sees behavior as the product of genes and neurochemistry, social learning theory behavior is product of reinforcement and mediational processes
define soft determinism
a version of determinism that allows for some element of free will and suggests that all events and behavior has a cause
eg
cognitive approach suggests that individuals can reason and make decisions within the limits of their cognitive system
argument against determinism
genetics are unlikely
studies that compare monozygotic twins have found 80% intelligence similarity and 40% for depression
suggests that genes do not determine behavior entirely and supports and interactionist standpoint
argument against determinism
justifying criminal behavior
this can be used to excuse behavior and hard determinism is not inline with principles of judicial system - promotes moral responsibility
argument for determinism
as a science
determinism- biological approach is scientific and has led to treatment for mental disorders to treat chemcial imbalances such as depression , using SSRI and SNRIs
however approach does not allow the use of other treatments that is not based on biological mechanism such as CBT
argument against free will
illusion
a person may choose to do something but these choices are determined by previous reinforcement
(suggested by behaviorist approach)
argument for free will
high internal validity
study found that teens with internal locus of control are less likely to develop depression and are more likely to have better mental health compared to those with external loc
supports that free will can be used to help us determine what controls our life events , making conscious decisions
define environment
everything that is outside our body, including people, events and the physical word
Lerner identified different levels of the environment which ranged from prenatal to post natal experiences
john Locke - blank slate
define nature
any influence on behaviour which genetic
genes, neurotransmitters and neurological structures
define heredity
process which traits are passed from parents to their offspring
heritability coefficient can be used to quantify the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis
define the interactionalist approach
reference to the nature nurture debate
view that processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition, they are linked in such a way that it does not make sense to separate influences
define the nature nurture debate
argument as whether a persons development is mainly due to their genes or to environmental influences.
examples of nature influences
genetic explanation
more closely related individuals are the more likely that they will develop the same behavior
concordance rate of mental disorders schizophrenia is 40% in MZ and 7% in DZ
illustrates how nature plays a part in contribution to the disorder
however, are not 100% therefore cannot be solely nature ad environment plays significant
examples of nature influence
evolutionary explanation
examples of influence of nurture
behaviorism
assume that all behavior can be explained in terms of experience alone
Skinner used concepts of classical and operant conditioning to explain learning
attachment explained by conditioning and reinforcement
evaluation of nature nurture debate
diathesis stress model
biological vunerability but not everyone with candidate gene will develop the disorder
expression depends on experience in the form of a stressor which triggers the condition
epigenetics - life experiences of previous generations (ww2) can leave epigenetic markers that infleunce health of offspring
argument for nature
real world application
OCD/ schizophrenia is highly heritable mental disorder
implication of development of medication to treat chemicals imbalance in the brain
However, can be a symptom rather than cause
define holism
perceiving the whole experience rather than individual feature.
study behavior as an indivisible system
defining reductionism
breaks down behavior into more simpler levels of explanation
(levels of explanation)
define levels of explanation
a hierarchy of reductionism that ranges from more holistic to entirely reductionist
highest level - cultural and social explanation
middle level- psychological explanations, cognition
lower level- biological explanations, neurotransmitters, genes etc
different ways of viewing same behavior
define biological reductionism
reducing behavior to biology, based on premise that we are biological organisms
feature of biological approach
define environmental reductionism
explanation that all behavior can be explained in terms of stimulus response links
obtaining of phobias and maintained via conditioning/ little albert study
argument for holism
complete picture
some behavior can only be understood at holistic level such as conformity and deindividuation of Zimbardo’s prisoners and guards.
looking at interaction between groups , provides a more complete picture
argument against holism
difficult to investigate differing types and levels of explanations
practical problem for researchers who attempt to combine higher level explanations because its difficult to identify which explanation is most influential and therefore which explanation would be most useful to base treatment upon
= may not lead to development of effective treatments for disorders
argument for reductionism
scientific
aims to predict and control behavior
reductionism is consistent with aims of science because it allows this
smaller parts are easily measured and manipulated under lab conditions
“cause and effect” relationship can be reliably established
argument against reductionsim
complexity
ignores the complexity of behavior and may lead to loss of validity because it ignores social context which often gives behavior meaning
define idiographic approach
method to investigate behavior which focuses on individuals and emphasizes their uniqueness.
subjective human experience is used as a way of explaining behavior
no aim to develop general laws and principles
qualitative data= case studies
examples of idiographic approach
humanistic approach
adopts a holistic and phenomenological approach to research which focuses on the experience of the individual
RM used to develop client centered approach to therapy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
define the nomothetic approach
seeks to formulate general laws of behavior based on study of groups and
summaries the difference between people through generalizations whilst developing general laws and unifying principles which can predict behavior
quantitative techniques / associated with scientific methods such as lab experiments and controlled observations = reliable
examples of nomothetic approach
biological approach
makes use of brain scans to make inferences about localization of brain function
example- PET scans by Tulving helped to establish that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex
examples of nomothetic approach
behaviorist
explain alll behaviour in terms of simple stimulus response links learnt through experiences
lab experience to create valid and reliable data - cause and effect relationship to be established
argument for idiographic approach
qualitative data
more in-depth = more complete account of an individual
support existing theories or challenge general laws and lead to the development of improved theories
(Clive wearing and LTM stores)
argument against idiographic approach
restrictive perspective
theories develop from use studies and interviews may struggle to generalise beyond individual - lack ecological validity
abstract concepts, lack of empirical evidence
does not improve scientific credibility of psychology
argument for nomothetic approach
scientific methods and laws
use of research methods to produce reliable data through standardised conditions and high control
parts of behaviour can be targeted and measured = increase internal validity
no researcher bias
= enables unifying laws and general principles to be reliably established, norms of iQ etc
argument against nomothetic approach
individual
may undervalue impact of individual experiences
due to emphasis on estbalishing universal norms and unifying laws of behaviour
eg
research into frequency of depression = lack of focus on best treatmentt = done little to improve a persons life
Ethical issues
Psychologists must consider ethical issues - in method and what results may tell society
Impact un groups or impact on participants
Can cause stenotypes and stigma
Controversial research
Eg: research into relationship between criminal behaviour and genetics.
Can use genetics as a defence for criminal behaviour
+
Can increase stigma, gene linked to criminal behaviour - could be excluded from society even it they do not commit crime
Socially sensitive research genetic testing
Stating any ethical issues that could be raised by research. - include ss issues eg: race and psychological disorders.
Genetic research influenced compulsory genetic testing for genes may be mandated.
People may not want to submit genetic testing - should be individual choice
Stigma can develop for those with the genes.
Socially sensitive research race
If race is used as an independent variable can be controversial
Studies about differences inIQ based on race
Can cause unnecessary social tensions, anxiety or stress
IQ _ distorted because there was methodological issues -researcher demonstrated bias towards socio-cultural groups
Yerkes test has cultural bias because questions require knowledge that is based on cultural references.
Benefits of socially sensitive research.
Research could benefit the larger population
Eg: research into gender roles and PCG - father can be primary caregiver.
Positive effect on economy as motes are influence to return to work.
