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Psychology Paper 3 > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

Kohlbergs theory of gender development

A

Kohlberg’s theory of gender development is based on Piaget model, arguing that gender development occurs alongside general development in thinking that comes with age.

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2
Q

Kohlberg- Gender identityStage

A
  • 18 months – 3 years
  • The child identifies themself as male or female and can categorise others as male or female.
  • can apply gender labels
  • However, the child does not recognise the stability of gender, * I’m going to be a daddy when I’m older”.
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3
Q

Kohlberg - Gender Stability

A
  • 3 – 5 years
  • The child realises that their gender is stable, i.e. that they will remain the same gender for life.
  • However, they may not apply this same stability to others.
  • For example, if a woman does some typically male activity or cuts her hair short, the child may think she is now a man.
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4
Q

Kolhberg- Gender Constancy

A
  • 6 years
  • The child realises that theirs and other people’s gender is permanent and constant over time and in different situations despite superficial changes.
  • For example, if a woman cuts her hair short, the child understands that she is still a woman.
  • They seek out and imitate role models who match their gender. For example, a boy may take an interest in football if he identifies with his father who is also interested in football.
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5
Q

Define sex

A

biological differences between males and females
chromosomes, hormones and anatomy- innate via nature

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6
Q

define gender

A

persons psychological status
attitudes, roles and behavior associate with being male or female- influenced by society
nurture

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7
Q

development of sex role stereotypes

A

majority of people view their sex and gender in accordance
expectations and perceptions that individuals that society have to what is appropriate behavior for each sex
results in a justification of discriminatory practices on the basis of sex
Studies can be used to support the social learning theory of gender
AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION- parents of media - support and sustain sterotypes

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8
Q

define gender dysphoria

A

biologically prescribed sex does not reflect feelings inside and the gender they identity

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9
Q

define androgyny

A

describes someone who displays a balance of both masculine and feminine characteristics
viewed from personality and appearance

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10
Q

measuring androgyny

A

Bems Sex Role Inventory
scale presents 20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as masculine (competitive and aggressive)
20 that would be typically feminine (tender and gentle)
20 neutral traits
required to rate them self on a seven point scale 1-7

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11
Q

strength of BSRI
valid and reliable

A

developed asking 50 men and women to rate 200 traits in terms of desirability for men and women
highest scores in each category became the 20

study piloted with over 1000 students and results corresponded with the participants own description of gender identity = validity
follow up study found similar results =test retest reliability

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12
Q

weakness of androgyny
well being

A

Bems emphasis on individuals that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy
assumption has been challenged
people that show greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted as these are more highly valued in some societies
= Bems research may not take account of social and cultural context

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13
Q

weakness of androgyny
questionnaires

A

BSRI questionaire relied on understanding of their personality and behaviour that may not necessarily have
gender is hypohetical construct which is open to interpretation
scoring is subjective and interpretation may differ

social desirability

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14
Q

biological explanations of gender dyphoria
BST Kruijver study

A
  • studied male to female transgerders
  • studied bed nucleus of stria terminalis
  • found number of neurones in male to female transgenders were similar to biological women
  • (men have half as women )
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15
Q

biological explanations of gender dyphoria
BST Zhoi

A
  • study male to female transgenders
  • studied the volume of the bed nucleus of stria terminalis
  • (40% larger in males)
  • post mortem study showed the size of the male to female transgenders was similar to be similar to biological female
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16
Q

genetic factors for gender dysphoria
Coolidge

A
  • studied 157 pairs of twins for evidence of GD using DSM-4
  • 2.3% prevalence rate
  • 62% due to genetic variance - suggests its heritable
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17
Q

genetic factors for gender dysphoria
Heylens

A
  • studied 23 MZ twins and 21 DZ
  • one of each pair had GD
  • 39% concordance rate of MZ twins
  • no conconrodance rate for DZ twins
  • suggests of genetic factor
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18
Q

Biological theory of gender dysphoria -evaluation
cause and effect

A
  • Chung et al. (2002) stated that the differences in sexes of the BSCt did not appear until adulthood.
  • So the BSCt differences could be the result of gender development, not the cause.
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19
Q

biological theory of gender dysphoria- evaluation
twins studies

A
  • twins studies did not hold a high concordance rate
  • difficult to seperate the effects of nature and nurture
  • twins may influence each other and environmental condtions experienced will be very similar
  • twin studies sample are very small - limiting effectiveness of making generalisations to wider population
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20
Q

biological theory of gender dysphoria
a03
reductionsim

A
  • reduced complex conditons into simple genetics
  • contributing factors such as psychodynamic and socail factors may be obscured or ignored
  • interactionalist approach may be more relevant
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21
Q

cogntive explanation of gender dysphoria

A
  • acknowledges indidivdual differences
  • dual pathwat theory
    1. acknowledge development of gender schemas- direct appropriate attitufdes and behaviour as part of normal development
    2. how childs gender and attitudes are affected by own activity, persoanl interests may become more dominant than gender identity- turns gender schema (results in a non sex- typed schema)
  • results in androgynous behaviour and more flexible attiutides to gender - possible formational of opposite identification
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22
Q

psychoanalytical approach for gender dysphoria
A03
gender bias

A
  • only offers an explanation for development of GID in males
    • females do not feel same pressure to take on role of mother in absence of father
  • subjective nature- reduces scientific credibility
  • beta bias
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23
Q

role of chromosomes

A
  • born with 23 chromosomes
  • 23rd chromosomes determine sex
  • Male XY
  • Female XX
  • Y chromosome of males develop testes by androgens (male sex hormones)
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24
Q

role of hormones
tesosterone

A
  • male sex hormone
  • development of of testes at 8 foetal weeks
  • links to agression
  • Poll et al - inject female rats with testosterone - become more physically and sexually aggresssive

AO3 - contradictory evidence
* double blind study by Tricker et al
* 43 men given weekly injections of tesosterone or placebo
* no significant differences in agression post 10 weeks
+
* animals limit extent of generalisability

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25
Q

role of hormones oestrogeon

A
  • female sex hormone that determines sexual characteristics and menustration
  • experience heightned emotionality and irritability during menstrual cycle PMS

A03
* questions effect of oestrogeon levels on woman moods and that PMS sterotypes female experience and emotions
* femminists say that it is a social construct and no biological fact
* makes men seems more superior (alpha bias)
*

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26
Q

a03
evidence supporting role of chromosomes and hormones

A

Dabbs et al
* in prison population male offenders with highest levels of testosterone were more likely ot commit violent or sexually motivated crimes

Goozen et al
* transgender individuals having hormone treatment
* injected with hormones of opposite sex
* male to female showed decreased sign of afression
* female to male showed opposite

= exert some influence on gender related behaviour

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27
Q

role of hormone
oxcytocin

A
  • women produce large quantities during labour - sitmulates lactation
  • reduces stress hormone cortisol
  • facilitates bonding
  • women produce more than men - popular sterotype that men are less interested in initmaacy
  • sexes produce equal amount in kissing and sexual intercourse
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28
Q

evaulation of kohlbergs theory of gender development
supporting evidence for gender constancy

A

salby and Frey
presented children with splir screen image of two sexes performing the same task
younger children looked at both sexes equally
children in the gender cosntancyage spent more time at their same sex adult
supports kohlberg, children in constancy will actively seek gender approriate models

29
Q

evaultion of Kohlbergs theory
supporting evidence for universality

A

Munroe
found cross cultural evidence
in countries such as Kenya, Samoa and Nepal
suggests that sequences of stages are unniversal

30
Q

evaulation of Kohlbergs theory
constancy not supported

A

many children begin to demonstrate gender approporate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved
Bandura found that children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender approraite tous and bad doing the oppisite
contradicts kohlberg (AND supports gender schema theory, children absorb gender appropriate infomration as soon as they identify themselves as male or female)

31
Q

evaulation of Kohlbergs theory
metholodlogical issues

A

kohlbergs theory was developed using interviews with children
young as two or three
although questions were tailored to particualr age group
Kohlbergs may have not acknowledged that very young children lacks the vocab to express their understanding
children may have complex ideas about gender but do not know how to articualte
therfore, what they express does not represent how they feel

32
Q

cogntivie explanations
gender schema theory

A

children develop understanding of gender by actively structing thier own learning rather than social learning theory

33
Q

cogntivie explanations
gender schema acquired with gender identity

A
  • schema is a mentral construct that develop via experience and are used to organise knowledge
  • gender schema is a generalised representation of everything known about gender
    Martin and Halverson:
  • once a child has established gender identity, age 2-3
  • child will begin to search environment that encourges development of gender schema
  • (contrasts kohlberg, as theory states only happens once develop all 3 stages, age 7)
34
Q

cogntivie explanations
schema directed behaviour and self understanding

A
  • schema expand to include a wide range of behvaiours and sterotypes
  • schemas are formed around steroypes, eg: boys like footbal and ditr
  • schemas direct expeience and childrens own understnaing of what is appropraite for its gender
  • children will disremeber or disregard information that does not fit into their exisiting schema
35
Q

cogntivie explanations
gender schema theory
in group and out groups

A
  • children have better understanding of schemas that are approriate to their own gender (in group)
  • children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender indetity than the out group
  • in group identity can increase levels of self esteem
  • until age 8, chuldren develop elaborate schemas for both genders
36
Q

evaulation of gender schema theory
supporting evidence distortion to fit schema

A
  • Martin and Halverson
  • children under the age of six were more likely to remember photogrpahs of gender consittent behaviour than gender inconsistent behaviour when testes a week later
  • children tended to change the sex of person carrying out the gender inconsistent activity
  • supports that memory may be distored to fit in with exisiting schemas
37
Q

evaluation of gender schema theory
supporting evidence against kohlbergs theory

A
  • Martin and Little
  • children under the age 4 showed no signs of gender stabiliy or constancy were showing strong sex typed behaviour and attitudes
  • contradicts kohlbergs theory but is consistent with predictions of gender schema theory
38
Q

evaluation of gender schema theory
overempahsis on role of individual

A
  • importance of schemas and cogntiive factors are over exagerated
  • there may not be sufficient attention paid to the role of social factors scuh as parental influence and role of rewards and punishments the child recieves for gendered behaviour
  • does not explain why gender schemas form
39
Q

evaluation of gender schema theory
rigidity of gender beliefs

A
  • supports how young children hold very fixed or rigidi gendered attitudes
  • information that conflicts with exisiting schema such as women on building site would be ignored in favour that confrims in group schema
  • children display strong in group bias- pay more attention to information that is relevant to their own experience
  • theory explains how children think about gender
40
Q

psychodynamic theory of gender development
pre phallic children

A
  • freuds five psychosexual stages
  • gender develops at the phallic stage
  • prior phaliic stage, chuldren have no concept of gender identity
  • freuds describes pre phallic children as bi sexual - neither masculine or feminine
  • phallic stage pleasure focus is the genitals
  • experience oedipus and electra complex
41
Q

psychodynamic theory of gender development
oedipus complex

A
  • boys develop attraction ot mother
  • have jealously for father
  • boy recognises father is more powerful and has castration anxiety
  • boys give up his love for mother and begins to identift with his father
  • identifiation with the aggressor
42
Q

psychodynamic theory of gender development
electra complex

A
  • girls experience pensiv envy
  • mother being competition for their fathers love and blame mother for lack of penis
  • girls accept they will never have a penus and subsititure penis envy with having desier to have children
  • identify with mothers
43
Q

psychodynamic theory of gender development
indetification and internalisation

A
  • children identift with parents to resolves their complexes
  • boys adopt attitudes and values of fathers and girls of mother
  • have a gender identity - internalisation
44
Q

psychodynamic theory of gender development
little hans

A
  • case study of little hans
  • 5 year old boy with fear of hoorses
  • freuds interpretation was that Hans fear of being bitten was represented fear of castration
  • hans had put fear of father onto horses due to defence mechanism- displacement
45
Q

evaluation of psychodynamic theory of gender development
research does not support oedipus complex

A
  • Little Hans case study was too unique
  • freuds theory implies that sons of harsh fathers should develop a more robust gender indeity because higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with the agressor
  • Hill, boys with more liberal fathers tended to be more secure in masculine identity
46
Q

evaluation of psychodynamic theory of gender development
same sex parents

A
  • theory relies on children having two parents of different genders to manage complexes effectively
  • freud conclude that children being raised in a non nuclear family would have adverse effects on a childs gender development
  • Golombok- demonstrated how children from single parent families develop a normal gender identities
  • Green- sample of 37 children raised by gay parents and discovered that only one child had a gender identity being described as non typical
47
Q

evaluation of psychodynamic theory of gender development
lack of scientific rigour

A
  • concepts are from unconscious and are untestable
  • contrast to other explanations of gender that are based on objective and verifiable evidence - biological approach
  • cannot be falsified
48
Q

social learning theory applied to gender development

A
  • acknowledges role of social context
  • all behaviour is learned from observing others
  • parents, perrs and teacher and influence of media
49
Q

social learning theory gender development
direct reinforcement

A

direct reinforcement- children are more likely to be reinfotced for demonstrating gender appropriate behaviour
boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviours - **differntial reinforcement **
results in child learning their gender
* children are more likely to imitate behaviour that has been reinforced

50
Q

social learning theory
vicarious reinforcement

A
  • another persons behaviour are favourable
  • little girl sees her mother being complimented for wearing makeip - behaviour is replicated
  • if consequences of behaviour are unfavourable - boy told of for crying - behaviour is unlikely to be coped
51
Q

social learning theory for gender development
identification and modelling AND mediational processes

A
  • child attaches themself to a person who has qualirt that are seen as reawarding - role models
  • same sex as child
  • modelling is demonstration of behaviour that may be imitated by observer - mother tidys her room , child tidys her room

Mediational processes
* cogntive processes that are central to learning of gendered behaviour
* attention , retention, motivation, motor reproduction

52
Q

evaluation of social learning theory of gender development
supporting evidence

A

Smith and Lloyd
4-6 month old babies were dressed for time , half in boys and hlaf in girls clothes
when observed interaction with baby ‘boy’ - given a hammer toy and told to be adventourous and active
when babies dressed as girl, handed a cuddly tou and told they were pretty
therfore , gender appropriate bhevaiour is learnt by diffrential reinforcement

53
Q

evaluation of social learning theory
explains changing gender roles

A
  • there is less sterotypically distinction between masculine and feminine behaviour than in 1950s
  • shift in social expectations and cultural norms
  • new forms of acceptable gendered behaviour have been reinforced
  • and due to no biological change
  • shift can be explained by social learning theory than biological approach
54
Q

evaluation of social learning theory of gendered development
not a developmental theory

A
  • theory does not provide explanation of how learning processes change with age
  • age limitation , mediational process - motor reproduction
  • general implication that modelling of gender appropriate behaviours can occur at any age
  • Dubin - child may take note of behaviour of same sex role models t an early stage , selection of sane sex role models is not until later
  • consistent with Kohlbergs theroy , children dont become active in gender until stage constancy
  • ignores the influence of age and maturation on gender - limits explanation
55
Q

evaluation of cognitive theory of gender dysphoria
lacks exlpanatory power

A
  • descriptive rather than explanatory
  • there is little explanation of why a child becomes intersted in activites that are not consistent with its own sex
  • or how opposite sex activities bring about development of non sex typed schema
56
Q

psychoanalytical theory of gender dysphoria

A
  • GD in biological males is caused by child experiences extreme seperation anxiety before gender identity has been established
  • child wishes for symbiotic fusion wiht their mother to relieve the anxiety and danger of seperation is removed
  • child adopts female gender identity
57
Q

SUPPORT FOR psychoanalytical theory of gender dysphoria

A
  • Stroller
  • interviews with GD biological males
  • seen to have overly close relationship with their mothers
  • would lead to greater female identification and atypical gender idenitity in the long term
58
Q

culture and gender roles

A

cross cultural research - if a gender role behaviour appears to be consistent across different cultures- might ocnlude that this represents innate biological differnce in males and gemles OR can be culturally specifica and assume infleunce of shared norms and socialisation is decisive

59
Q

CULTURAL DIFFERNCES gender roles

A
  • MEAD of tribal groups of New Guinea
  • Arapesh were gentle and responsive (UK female sterotype)
  • Mudugumor were agressive and hostile (UK male sterotype)
  • Tchambuli were dominate and organsied village life whilist men considered decorative (UK reverse)
    = no direct biolofical relationship between sex and gender adn that gender roles may be culturally determined
60
Q

CULTURAL SIMILARITIES gender roles

A
  • BUSS
  • found consistent patterns in mate prefernces in all continents
  • women look for men who can offer wealth and resources
  • men looked for youth and physical attractieness
    MUNROE
  • most socities, division of labour is organised along gender lines (males are breadwinner and females are nutures)
61
Q

evaluating Culture and gender roles
Meads Research criticisms

A
  • not seperating her own opinions from her description of samoan life (observer bias)
  • made generalisations based on a short period
  • FREEMAN- conducted a follow ip study of Samoan people- Mead was flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants and her preconeptions had influenced her findings
62
Q

evaluating Culture and gender roles
Imposed etic

A
  • cross cultural research performed bt Western researchers
  • impose their own cultural interests and understanding upon people they are studying
  • BERRY- western way of doing research is assumed to be unniversal may be meaningless when transfered to other cultures
  • one member of research team should be reflective of local populations
63
Q

evaluating Culture and gender roles
nature or nurture

A
  • can provide insight into different cultural practices impact on gender role
  • cannot seperate the nature nurture debate
  • children are born and socialisation in socirty starts
  • difficult to establish where nature stop and nurture begins
  • likely to be an interaction between both influences
64
Q

Media and gender roles

A
  • provide role models whom children indentify and want to imitate
  • children are likley to select role models of the same sex and who engage in gender appropriate behaviours
65
Q

Media and gender roles
RIGID STEROTYPES

A
  • media can provide clear gender sterotypes
  • FURNHAM AND FARRAGHER- found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts wheras women are seen in family roles
  • role in reinforcing wide spread social sterotypes concerning male and female behaviour
66
Q

Media and gender roles
INFORMATION GIVING

A
  • MCGHEE AND FRUEH- children who have more exposure to media tend to display more gender sterotypical vies in behavior and attitudes
  • media can also give infomration in sucess of adopting behaviours
  • seeing others perform gender appropraite behaviour increases child belief that they are capable of carrying out behaviours (Self efficacay)
67
Q

evaluating media and gender roles
correlation not causation

A
  • media has got considerable influence
  • difficult to establish cause and effect
  • media output reflects prevaling socail norms about males and females
  • media is the cause of such norms be decipting men and women in certain ways
  • majority of children are exposed to media therfore ther is no valid control group to compare
68
Q

evaluating media and gender roles
counter sterotypes

A
  • research in are fpcused on how gender sterotypes to reinforce status quo
  • BUT countersterotypes such as Disneys brave - challenges traditional notions of masculinity and gemiminirt
  • Pingree - gender sterotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non sterotypical roles
  • BUT foundf that boys sterotpes became stronger following exposire to non traditional roles

Psychology Paper 3 (4 decks)

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