Issues and Debates

Question 1

Describe universality

Answer 1

• theories aim to be universal- means they apply to all people and thus both genders
• gender bias and ethnoentrism threatens the notion of universality

Question 2

Describe bias

Answer 2

• can be defined as a prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a way that could be considered unfair - can refers to gender differences e.g. saying men and women are the same and if male behaviour seen as norm, women will never be seen to be as good as men if they are expected to act like men
• can refer to cultural differences- e.g. is we only judge behaviour from one particular culture (the tendency in mainstream psychology is from Western culture), then any behaviour that deviates from this will be seen as abnormal

Question 3

What are gender biases consequences of

Answer 3

Androcentrism

Question 4

Describe androcentrism

Answer 4

• psychology as a discipline (and society) has always been male dominated
• for a long time, almost all psychologists were male and therefore any theories tended to represent a male world view
• research also tended to use mainly male PPs, and thus any theories are unlikely to be universal
• this can lead to women being misunderstood and their behaviour being seen as abnormal

Question 5

Name the 2 main forms of gender bias

Answer 5

• alpha bias
• beta bias

Question 6

Describe examples of androcentrism

Answer 6

• American psychological association published list of 100 most influential psychologists of the 20th century- only 6 women
• Womens behaviour often misunderstood- taken as signs of illness e.g. premenstural syndrome medicalised womens emotions e.g. anger by explaining these in terms of hormones, but Mens anger often seen as rational response to external pressures (Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008)

Question 7

Describe alpha bias

Answer 7

• when we assume there are differences between genders when in fact there might not be
• can be a problem as either artificially raises a particular genders status or undervalues a particular gender
• e.g. Freud- saw women as almost failed men in that they believed they had been castrated and experience penis envy

Question 8

Describe beta bias

Answer 8

• when we assume there are no differences between genders
• e.g. suggests findings from men can be assumed to women- not the case as there clearly are differences
• e.g. aggression- research shown males more aggressive- therefore wrong to try and treat male and female aggression in the same way

Question 9

Positives considering gender bias

Answer 9

Equality:
- positive of adopting a beta bias approach- can help to create equality in society
- If research suggests that there are no differences between males and females, then society can become more equal, and the law now reflects this
- This has the benefit of allowing women more access to educational and occupational opportunities
HOWEVER-
- not necessarily beneficial to treat males and females the same, as there are differences between genders and society is still not equal
- Therefore Hare-Mustin and Marecek suggest that viewing genders as equal takes attention away from women’s needs
- E.g. equal parental leave ignores the parental demands of pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding
- Therefore, seeing both sexes as the same can further disadvantage women

Reflexivity:
- considering gender bias has allowed researchers to become aware of how their own interpretations can influence the research process
- A reflexive process is now often used in qualitative research in particular- involves the researcher considering the effect of their own values and assumptions on the research
- e.g. Dambrin and Lambert include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events in study on lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms
- important development in psychology and may mean that it is less likely for such concrete generalisations to made from research in terms of gender

Question 10

Issues considering gender bias

Answer 10

Methodology:
- issue with trying to understand gender differences and bias in research, is that the differences may not be due to gender but due to the way in which the research was carried out
- E.g. Rosenthal (1966)- review of research- found that male and female experimenters sometimes obtain different data from their participants,
because they treat each gender differently
- e.g. male researchers are more pleasant, friendly and encouraging to female participants than to male participants, leading to males
performing less well in research
- therefore makes it difficult to get a true reflection of gender similarities/differences and makes it hard to know when/if gender bias is occurring

Some theories still not challenged:
- Despite the understanding now that gender bias can occur in the research process, there are examples of gender bias in existing theories that have not been challenged
- E.g. Darwin’s theory of sexual selection portrays males as
competing for females and females as being choosy (as the costs to reproduce are higher for women)
- issue as Vernimmen (2015) found that females are as competitive as
males
- Thus, there is still a long way to go in diminishing gender bias in research

Biological vs social explanations:
- gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring (i.e. alpha bias) when they are not
- Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)- presented findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability
- Suggest these differences are ‘hardwired’ into the brain - widely reported views and seen as facts
- But Joel et al (2015) used brain scanning and found no such sex differences in brain structure/processing
- possible that data from Maccoby and Jacklin was popularised because it fitted existing stereotypes of girls as ‘speakers’ and boys as ‘doers’
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they might be better explained as social stereotypes
HOWEVER:
- doesn’t mean that psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain
- Ingalhalikar et al (2014)- suggests that the popular social stereotype that women are better at multitasking may have some biological truth to it - women brain may benefit from better connections between the left and right hemisphere than in a mans brain
- suggests there may be biological differences but we should be very wary of exaggerating the effects they have on human behaviour

Sexism in research:
- gender bias promotes sexism in the research process
- women remain unrepresented in many university departments- particularly sciences
- e.g. psychology’s undergraduate intake is mainly women, but lecturers more likely to be male (Murphy et al, 2014)
- means research is more likely to be conducted by men and may disadvantage PPs who are women
- e.g. a male researcher may expect a woman to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995)- such expectations are likely to mean women underperform in research studies
- means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased

Research challenging gender biases may not be published:
- Formaniwicz et al (2018)- analysed more than 1000 articles relating to gender published over 8 years
- found research on gender bias is often less funded and published by less prestigious journals
- consequence of this are that fewer scholars are aware of it or apply it within their own work
- the researchers argued that this still held true when gender bias was compared to other forms of bias e.g. ethnic bias, and when other factors were controlled e.g. the gender of the authors and methodology used
- suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias

Effects:
- gender biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices
- in any domain in which men set the standards for normalcy, as Tarvis (1993) puts it, “It becomes normal for women to feel abnormal”
- thus, gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem, but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women

Question 11

Cultural bias research examples

Answer 11

• Henrich et al reviewed hundreds of studies in leading psychology journals and found 68% of research PPs in studies came from USA and 96% from industrustrialised nations
• Arnett et al found 80% undergrads studying psychology
• Henrich et al- WEIRD to describe group of people most likely to be studied by psychologists (Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich Democracies)- if these seen as norm, behaviour from those not in these groups inevitably seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’

Question 12

Describe ethnocentrism

Answer 12

• refers to the use of our own cultural group as a basis for judgements about other cultural groups
• We tend to view the customs and behaviours of our own group as ‘normal’ and superior, whereas those from other cultures are seen as ‘strange’
• e.g. Jahodas criteria for ideal mental health- autonomy and independence valued in Western cultures but in collectivist cultures, dependence would be seen as more highly valued
• second example- Ainsworth’s strange situation based on American norms - Japanese babies more likely to be classed as insecurely attached because they showed considerable distress on separation (Takahasi), but it is likely that this finding due to fact that Japanese babies rarely separated from mothers

Question 13

Desribe cultural relativism

Answer 13

• This is the suggestion that all cultures are worthy of respect and that when studying another culture, we need to try and understand the way that a particular culture sees the world
• To achieve this, researchers need to take an emic approach

Question 14

Name two approaches to the study of human behaviour and who distinguished between these

Answer 14

• Emic and Etic
• Berry (1969)

Question 15

Describe emic approaches

Answer 15

• identifying and measuring behaviour in a way that is specific to that culture
• functions inside a culture

Question 16

Describe an etic approach

Answer 16

• where behaviour is assumed to be universal and cultures are studied from the outside)

Question 17

Describe ways in which researchers can minimise cultural bias in their research

Answer 17

• By not attempting to extrapolate findings/theories to cultures that are not represented in the research sample
• To use researchers who are native to or immersed in the culture being investigated
• To carry out cross-cultural research rather than research with a sole culture
• By being sensitive to cultural norms/standards when designing research/when reporting findings
• taking a reflexive approach ie constantly reflecting on own biases when carrying out research

Question 18

Positives when considering cultural bias

Answer 18

Taking an emic approach:
- researchers are trying to overcome issues with cultural bias
- Using ethnography- researcher becomes a part of the community to develop a full understanding of a culture
- likely to lead to a more valid interpretation of behaviour and so demonstrate whether a trait is
universal or not
BUT
- not all behaviour is relative to one’s culture
- Some traits are universal and therefore it is not always useful to try and frame behaviour in the context of the culture
- e.g. some features of attachment (like interactional synchrony) have been found to be universal, fight or flight response
- Ekman (1989)- suggest stop basic facial expressions full emotions or the same all over the human and animal world
- Therefore a full understanding of psychology requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups

Cultural Psychology:
- strength is emergence of cultural psychology
- Cohen (2017)- the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural experience
- this is an emerging field and incorporates work from researchers in other disciplines including anthropology, sociology and political science
- cultural psychologists strive to avoid ethnocentric assumptions by taking on emic approach and conducting research from inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally based techniques
- cross-cultural research tends to focus on just two cultures instead of larger scale studies with maybe eight or more countries/ cultures
- suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and are taking steps to avoid it

Relativism:
- one of the great benefits of conducting cross-cultural research is that it may challenge dominant individualist ways of thinking and viewing the world
- being able to see that some of the knowledge and concepts we take for granted are not hard-wired- social rather than biological- may provide a better understanding of human nature

Question 19

Negatives when considering cultural bias

Answer 19

Implications of cultural bias:
- issue with cultural bias in research is that if the Western view dominates, this may have an impact on how mental illness is diagnosed
- E.g. the DSM is based on Western culture and behaviours that the DSM define as a symptom of schizophrenia (such as hearing voices) is a common experience in some cultures
- issue as it means that we might diagnose someone as mentally ill, but the definition may be relative to our culture
- may mean that people receive treatment that they may not really need

Operalisation of variables:
- issue with studying participants in other cultures is that without a clear understanding of the culture being studied, we may measure what we
perceive to be a certain behaviour but it may not be viewed the same way in other cultures
- E.g. often researchers will study different samples from different cultural groups such as the Strange Situation procedure- Takahashi found that infants became extremely distressed upon separation in the Strange Situation as a result of cultural differences rather
than due to attachment type
- By doing so researchers may claim they have considered cultural differences, but the measurement may not be a valid one and cultural bias is therefore still present

Classic studies:
- many of the most influential studies in psychology are culturally biased
- cultural bias is a feature of many classic studies of social influence e.g. Asch and Milgram- US, white, middle-class PPs- Asch-style studies in collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity (Smith and Bond) than the original studies in the US- an individualist culture
- suggests our understanding of topics such as social influence should only be applied to individualist cultures
BUT:
- in an age of increased media globalisation, it is argued that individualist collectivist distinction no longer applies
- the traditional argument is that individualised countries, such as the US, value individuals and independence, whilst collectivist cultures/ countries such as India and China value society and the needs of the group
- however, Takano and Osaka (1999)- found fat 14/ 15 studies that compared to US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism- describe distinction as lazy and simplistic
- suggests that cultural bias in research may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research

Ethnic stereotyping:
- one limitation of cultural bias in psychology is that it has led to prejudice against groups of people
- Gould (1981)- explain how the first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in the US
- psychologists used the opportunity of World War One to pilot their first IQ tests on 1.75 million army recruits
- many of the items on the test were ethnocentric, e.g. Assuming everyone puts note the names of US presidents
- result was that recruits from South Eastern Europe and African Americans received the lowest scores-poor performance of these groups was not taken as sign of tests inadequacy, but was instead used to inform racist discourse about the genetic inferiority of particular cultural and ethnic groups- ethnic minorities were deemed mentally unfit and feeble-minded in comparison to the white majority and were denied educational and professional opportunities
- this illustrates how cultural bias can’t be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards certain cultural and ethnic groups

Question 20

Outline the free-will determinism debate

Answer 20

• focuses on the extent to which our behaviour is down to our own conscious control (free will) or whether it is already pre-determined for us in some way

Question 21

Describe free will

Answer 21

• the suggestion that we are self-determining- free to choose our thoughts and behaviours
• acknowledges that we are influenced by biological and environmental factors but that we can reject these influences and create our own pathway

Question 22

Describe determinism

Answer 22

• the suggestion that we have no free will over our thoughts and actions and that they are pre-determined by internal and external factors
• means that our behaviour is predictable; this allows psychologists to develop theories of behaviour

Question 23

Name different categories of determinism

Answer 23

• soft/hard
• biological/environmental/psychic

Question 24

Describe hard determinism

Answer 24

• extreme form of determinism with no room for free will in behaviour
• views all behaviour as having a
  specific cause, either internal or external and we cannot control these, should be possible to identify and describe these causes
• Therefore this view assumes that people are not responsible for their actions
• aka fatalism

Question 25

Describe soft determinism

Answer 25

• allows for some free will and believes that humans do have some conscious mental control over their behaviour
• Although we have a number of
  influencing forces on us, we have freedom to detract from these to make rational choices
• although it may be the job of scientists to explain what determines behaviour, this doesn’t detract from freedom we have to make conscious choices in everyday situations
• first put forward by William James
• important feature of cognitive approach

Question 26

Describe biological determinism

Answer 26

• views behaviour as being determined by biological factors e.g. the autonomic nervous system on the stress response
• As humans we are not able to see or control biological factors such as genetics, neurotransmitters or hormones- but they can have a direct effect on our behaviour
• modern biological psychologists would recognise the mediating influence of the environment on our biological structures
• examples- Hormones (e.g. testosterone), Genetics (e.g. COMT/SERT), Neural Factors

Question 27

Describe environmental determinism

Answer 27

• sees our behaviour being determined by past experiences and external influences such as parents and
  teachers
• Although we may think we are acting as a result of free will, we are socialised into our behaviour by society
• Skinner- free will is illusion- all behaviour result of conditioning- experience of choice is merely the sum of total reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives
• e.g. Pavlov, skinner, social learning theory

Question 28

Describe psychic determinism

Answer 28

• sees our behaviour as determined by unconscious forces
• Although we think we are in control, experiences in early childhood will have
  influenced our unconscious
• Freud- saw human behaviour as determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood- no such thing as accidents

Question 29

Describe the scientific emphasis on causal explanations

Answer 29

• Science believes that every event has a specific cause and we can explain this cause using general laws (psychological theories)
• knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future
• To be able to test a specific cause on behaviour, the laboratory method is used whereby all extraneous variables are controlled, and an IV manipulated
• The DV is then measured and due to the tight controls, it means that any differences in the DV must be due to the IV and thus cause and effect can be established

Question 30

Arguments for free will

Answer 30

Face validity:
- Free will as a concept fits in with what we experience in everyday life, where we feel as though we are making our own decisions
- reinforced in our legal system- law assumes that humans are responsible for their behaviour (apart from children and those who are mentally ill)
- This is useful because it helps to maintain calm and order in society

Psychological benefits:
- Research shows that individuals with a high locus of control (who believe that they have a high degree of control over their behaviour) tend to be more
mentally healthy and optimistic, whereas individuals who believed their fate is determined are more likely to become depressed (Roberts et al. 2000)
- useful, as even if we do not have free will, believing that we have it has a
positive mental impact

Question 31

Arguments against free will

Answer 31

Research evidence:
- Libet et al (1983)- instructed PPs to choose a random moment to flip their wrist while he measured activity in their brain (readiness potential)- participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move- found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around half a second before the PP consciously felt they had decided to move
- Chun Siong Soon et al (2008)- found similar results
- Activity in the prefrontal cortex occurs up to 10 seconds before the individual is aware of their decision to act
- shows that even in simple actions we do not have free will, our brain decides for us
BUT:
- just because the action comes before the conscious awareness of the decision to act, doesn’t mean that there was no decision to act- just that the decision to act took time to reach consciousness
- our conscious awareness of the decision is simply a ‘read out’ of our unconscious decision making- suggests this evidence is not appropriate as a challenge to free will

Culturally relative:
- The concept of free will may be one that is suited to individualistic cultures where independence is valued
- In a collectivist culture, where greater emphasis is placed on behaviour which is determined by group, they are less likely to value free will
- Therefore explaining behaviour in terms of free will can be seen as culturally biased and ethnocentric

Question 32

Arguments for determinism

Answer 32

Mental illness:
- The notion of diagnosing mental illness suggests that our behaviour is determined
- Symptoms of a mental illness are unlikely to be behaviours that a person
chooses to do, for example ‘word salad’ in a schizophrenic patient, or a depressed patient who feels suicidal
- The fact that medication can help
to remove these symptoms suggests that there are biological factors determining behaviour

Interventions:
- A positive of seeing behaviour as being already predetermined is that if we know what causes certain behaviours then we can intervene to prevent certain behaviours
- E.g. if we know that certain genetics or brain activity is involved in murder, then individuals with that biological make-up can be identified early on and given support to avoid this behaviour

Question 33

Arguments against determinism

Answer 33

Concordance rates:
- our behaviour is unlikely to be influenced by solely biological determinism or environmental determinism
- can be seen in concordance rates of MZ twins for mental illness which are never 100%
- shows that biology alone does not determine behaviour and neither does the environment (as MZ twins reared together share the same environment)
- Therefore the determinism argument is more complex than suggested

Socially sensitive:
- If our behaviour is truly
determined, this creates a number of ethical considerations in society
- E.g. if we do not have control over our behaviour then this means criminal behaviour can never be punished- as the individual would not be responsible
- Furthermore, if we see mental health as having a biological determining factor, then treatments will focus on medication and ignore other influencing factors
- creates a possible self-fulfilling prophecy where individuals live up to their deterministic label

Question 34

Describe the nature-nurture debate

Answer 34

• refers to the extent to which our behaviour is influenced by biological and environmental factors
• not seen as an ‘either/or’ debate but rather the extent to which the two interact

Question 35

Describe nature

Answer 35

• refers to the influences of our genes on all our behaviour and characteristics
• not the same as characteristics you are born with because these may have been determined by your pre-natal environment
• Supporters of the nature view are often referred to as nativists (e.g. Descartes)

Question 36

Describe nurture

Answer 36

• refers to influences of interactions i.e. what is learned through experience
  with both the social and physical environment
• Supporters of the nurture view believe we are born as a blank slate and are referred to as empiricists e.g. John Locke
• Lenner- different levels of the environment- prenatal factors (physical e.g. smoking, psychological- e.g. music) affect a foetus, postnatal e.g. social conditions a child grows up in
• e.g. SLT, Skinner, Pavlov

Question 37

Describe the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining behaviour

Answer 37

Heredity:
- genetics- suggestion that our genetic makeup influences our behaviour
- evolutionary- Characteristics which have supported survival are now innate within us and passed down due to natural selection

Environment:
- learning theory- proposes that all behaviour is learnt via experience such as via conditioning or social learning theory

Question 38

Describe the measurement of nature and nurture

Answer 38

• the extent to which two people are similar on a particular trait can be represented by a correlation coefficient- concordance
• search concordance provides an estimate about the extent to which a trait is inherited- heritability
• heritability is the proportion of differences between individuals in a population, with regards to a particular trait, that is due to genetic variation
• a figure of .01 (1%) means jeans contribute almost nothing 2 individual differences and 1 (100%) means genes are the only reason for individual differences

Question 39

Describe the interactionist approach

Answer 39

• the concept that it is not nature or nurture, but instead an interaction between the two
• e.g. Bowlby said attachment type is determined by the warmth and continuity of parental love (environmental), Kagan proposed that baby’s innate personality also affects the attachment relationship (temperament)- nature creates nurture- environment and heredity interact
• e.g. Maguire, Schemas
• psychologists more likely to ask what the relative contribution of each influence is

Question 40

Name elements of the interactionist approach

Answer 40

• diathesis-stress model
• epigenetics
• passive, active, and reactive relationships

Question 41

Describe the diathesis-stress model

Answer 41

• suggests behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability- diaphysis- which is only expressed when coupled with a biological or environmental trigger- stressor
• Mental illness/abnormality occurs due to interaction between biological (diathesis) and the environmental (stress) influences
• e.g. OCD- genetic predisposition and traumatic life events

Question 42

Describe epigenetics

Answer 42

• refers to a change in our genetic activity without changing the genes themselves
• process that happens throughout life and is caused by an interaction with the environment
• aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter leave marks on our DNA, which switch genes on or off
• these epigenetic changes may go on and influence the genetic codes of our children as well as their children- epigenetics therefore introduces a third element into the nature-nurture debate- the life experience of previous generations

Question 43

Describe passive interactions (nature-nurture)

Answer 43

• where parental genes affect the way that the parents treat their children
• E.g. if a parent is musically gifted, they may push and encourage their children to also play a musical instrument

Question 44

Describe active interactions (nature-nurture)

Answer 44

• where the child’s genetic make-up actively affects the environment
• e.g. a musically gifted child may seek out other children with musical talents as friends, reinforcing the focus on music

Question 45

Describe reactive interactions (nature-nurture)

Answer 45

• The child’s genetic make-up, such as their physical appearance or temperament, leads to particular responses from others
• E.g. a parent notices that their child has a talent in music and so encourages musical development for their child

Question 46

Strengths considering the nature-nurture debate

Answer 46

Epigenetics:
- one strength of the debate is support for epigenetics
- 1 example of how environmental effects can expand generations presumably through epigenetic effects comes from events of the Second World War
- in 1944, the Nazis blocked the distribution of food to the Dutch people and 22,000 died of starvation- Dutch hunger winter
- Susser and Lin (1992) report that women who became pregnant during the famine went on to have low birth weight babies, babies also twice as likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up compared to more typical population rates
- supports the view that life experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic markers that influence the health of their offspring

Application:
- real world application- for example research suggests that OCD is highly heritable
- e.g. Nestadt et al (2010)- heritability rate .76
- such an understanding can inform genetic counselling- important to understand that high heritability does not mean it is inevitable that the individual will go on to develop the disorder
- means that people who have a high genetic risk of acd because of their family backgrounds can’t receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this, for example by managing stress
- shows that the debate is not just theoretical- has important implications at practical level to understand interaction between nature and nurture

Adoption studies:
- strength of research into the nature nurture debate is the use of adoption studies
- adoption studies are useful because they separate the competing influences of nature and nurture
- if adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents, there suggests the environment is the biggest influence, but if more similar to biological parents, the genetic factors are presumed to dominate
- Rhee and Waldman (2002)- meta analysis of adoption studies- found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression- it shows how research can separate the influences of nature and nurture
HOWEVER:
- research suggests that this approach may be misguided- that nature and nurture are not two entities that can simply be pulled apart
- Plomin- niche-picking- people create their own nurture by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their nature
- E.g. naturally aggressive Child likely to feel more comfortable with children who showed similar behaviours- will choose environment accordingly- chosen companions then further influence development

Question 47

Issues considering the nature-nurture debate

Answer 47

Nurture can affect nature:
- Research shows that the interactionist approach is more likely
to be accurate than purely nature or nurture
- Maguire et al (2000) found that
the area of the brain responsible for spatial memory was larger in London taxi drivers, suggesting their hippocampus had responded to increased use i.e. their experiences changed their nature (plasticity)
- This reinforces that as humans we are influenced by a number of different factors and it is too simple to put this down to the dichotomous nature or nurture argument

Nature can affect nurture:
- further research shows that the interactionist approach is more likely to be accurate than purely nature or nurture
- e.g. constructivism suggests that people create their own environment by actively selecting what is appropriate for their ‘nature’
- e.g. a naturally aggressive child may seek out friends who are also aggressive or prefer to watch violent television programmes, or take up
violent sport such as boxing
- These types of environments will then also shape their behaviour and may reinforce their aggressive tendencies
- This reinforces that it is likely to be impossible to actually disentangle whether nature or nurture is having a bigger impact on behaviour as the relationship seems to be reciprocal

Hard to study:
- In reality we are unlikely to ever discover the exact extent to which nature and nurture can influence behaviour
- This is because it is impossible to separate the two to see the impact of both
- Even with MZ twins who are genetically identical, they will never share the exact same environment
- Their pre-natal environment may have differed (for example if one was receiving more nutrients), their home lives are also likely to differ
- They will have different peers, are likely to be in different classes at schools and will not have the
exact same interactions with their parents
- This explains the wide variation in concordance rates for MZ twins and suggests we need to be cautious when using research to illustrate either side of the debate

Implications:
- nativists suggest that anatomy is destiny- our genetic makeup determines our characteristics and behaviour with little environmental input
- this extreme determinist stance has led to controversies, such as linking ethnicity, genetics, and intelligence, and the application of eugenic policies
- also an issue considering the law and criminal justice
- in contrast, but also controversially, empiricists suggest that any behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions
- behavioural shaping, a behaviourist concept, has had practical application in therapy- desirable behaviours are selectively reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored- aversion therapy- carried to an extreme this could lead to complete social control by the state for the good of everyone
- suggests it is far more beneficial to take an interactionist approach

Question 48

Describe the holism-reductionism debate

Answer 48

• refers to the level at which we try to explain behaviour
• Do we explain behaviour by looking at the smallest, simplest component (reductionism) or do we try to understand the individual as a whole (holism)?

Question 49

Describe holism

Answer 49

• focuses on the system as a
  whole rather than the constituent parts
• suggests we cannot predict how the whole system will work by just looking at
  individual components
• derives from Gestalt psychologists who claimed that ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
• e.g. humanistic psychology qualitative analysis of whole person

Question 50

Describe reductionism

Answer 50

• breaks down complex phenomena into more simple components, with the belief that more complex components are
  better understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation
• suggests there is no such thing as individualism, as essentially what makes us ‘tick’ is the same for everyone
• based on the scientific principle of parsinomy- all phenomena should be explained using the simplest (lowest level) parts

Question 51

Name/describe the different levels of explanation in psychology

Answer 51

• neurochemical (e.g. serotonin)
• physiological (e.g. frontal lobes)
• environmental/behavioural (e.g. learning experiences)
• physical (e.g. physical compulsion)
• psychological (e.g. experience of anxiety)
• social-cultural (e.g. social relationships interrupted)
  Biological is lowest, psychological is middle, social and cultural is highest

Question 52

Name two types of reductionism

Answer 52

• biological
• environmental

Question 53

Describe biological reductionism

Answer 53

• reduces behaviour to neurochemical and physiological (physical) level and the action of neurons, neurotransmitters, genetics and hormones
• also includes evolutionary influences
• based on the principle that we are biological organisms and thus, all behaviour is at some level biological
• arguments often work backwards- e.g. effectiveness of SSRIs for role of serotonin

Question 54

describe environmental determinism

Answer 54

• suggests that all behaviour can be reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events in the environment
• focuses on physical, observable behaviour
• e.g. behaviourists

Question 55

Describe arguments for reductionism

Answer 55

Scientific approach:
- focuses on one factor- makes it easier to control other variables and design research that clearly focuses on the component of interest
- allows one variable to be operationalised- can use experiments or behavioural categories in observations- objective and reliable
- allows clear operalisation of variables and increases both reliability and internal validity in research- helps o establish cause and effect
- gives psychology greater credibility in the scientific community
COUNTERPOINT:
- this may oversimplify complex behaviour- reducing validity
- explanations that operate at genetic/neurotransmitter do not include analysis of social context in which behaviour happens
- shows reductionist approaches can only form part of an explanation

Practical applications:
- if we can focus down on specific causes of behaviour, then we can develop clear interventions that focus on that one component part
- e.g. the use of SSRIs to treat OCD- has had the benefit of fewer patients being institutionalised for their mental illness

Question 56

Describe arguments against reductionism

Answer 56

Misses complexity of behaviours:
- As a reductionist approach only focuses on one causal factor, it sees behaviour as simple
- e.g. environmental reductionism is largely based on research using animals (as cognitive factors are thought not to be important).
- However, humans are not scaled up versions of other animals, as their behaviour is influenced by social context, cognition and emotion
- Therefore a reductionist approach is unlikely to give us a true reflection of the behaviour being studied

Fails to take in context:
- fails to take into account the meaning of behaviour and other potential causes. - e.g. prescribing SSRIs for depression may not be a long-term solution if the individual is in a social environment (such as poverty) which is causing
the depression
- Therefore time and money may be spent on applications that do not actually help the individual

Brain and mind:
- reductionism fails to explain consciousness
- reductionist account of consciousness would argue we can solve consciousness through cognitive neuroscience
- however, neuroscientists struggle to explain the subjective experience of the same neural process e.g. different experiences thinking about the same colour have same neural mechanism but different experience
- referred to as ‘explanatory gap’ in brains science- Leviene (1983)- may suggest thinking is step beyond what is happening in the brain

Higher level:
- some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level
- e.g. aspects of social behaviour that only emerge in a group context- can’t be understood in terms of the individual group members
- conformity to social roles in Zimbardo study- not understood by observation as individuals- interaction between behaviour and group important- no known genetic influence so social influences can only be explained at the level at which they occur
- suggests that for some behaviours, higher level explanations (or even holistic ones) provide a more valid account

Question 57

Describe arguments for holism:

Answer 57

Accounts for social influences:
- Research shows that behaviour is influenced by our interactions with others, which means not all
behaviour can be explained by looking at factors from the individual
- e.g. conformity to social roles (as in Zimbardo’s work) could not be understood by focusing on
one factor – the interaction with others was important
- shows that holism may give more accurate understanding of behaviour

Accounts for cognitive influences:
- Research has also shown that we cannot simply look at biology or stimulus-response as the way we think and process information is important
- e.g. the way in which our schemas develop through childhood has been
shown to influence depression
- Holism considers this by understanding the individual as a whole, which is likely to give a more accurate representation of behaviour

Question 58

Describe arguments against holism

Answer 58

Hard to test:
- The issue with holism focusing
on the individual as a whole, is that this makes it very difficult to isolate variables to allow for controlled testing
- The more factors you are considering, the more vague the research
- If you are focusing on the individual, this also makes it hard to generalise findings and create theories
- This therefore questions how useful
the concept of holism is when trying to provide evidence to the scientific community

Hard to practically apply:
- As holism considers all potentially influencing factors to a behaviour, it makes it difficult to actually make
any useful suggestions as to how to change the behaviour
- e.g. when trying to treat depression, it becomes difficult to know which
factor needs to be tackled first (e.g. relationships, childhood experience) and which treatment to use initially or which to prioritise in therapy due to greater influence
- This suggests lower-level explanations (reductionist ones) may be more useful practically

Question 59

Describe the idiographic-nomothetic debate

Answer 59

idiographic approach is one that focuses on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, whereas a nomothetic approach tries to create general laws of behaviour (generalisations, establishing norms)
Debate has implications for types of research method used (individuals in depth or larger groups to discuss averages)

Question 60

Describe the idiographic approach

Answer 60

• small number of PPs- ofren signle case (individual/group from institution)
• focus on detail and gaining insights into human behaviour and an individuals unique insights
• individual nor compared to larger group or norm
• most research is qualitative
• methods include case studies, unstructured interviews, thematic analysis
• e.g. humanistic and psychodynamic approach- e.g. Rogers unconditional positive regard from in-depth conversations in therapy, Freud through case studies

Question 61

Describe the nomothetic approach

Answer 61

• involves the study of a large number of people and then seeks to make generalisations or develop theories/laws about behaviour
• most closely fits traditional models of the ‘scientific method’- hypotheses are formulated, samples of people (or animals) are assessed
• gathers quantitative data- numerical data produced and analysed for its statistical significance
• this provides a benchmark to which people can be compared and future behaviour can be predicted
• therefore uses experiments as they allow for larger (more representative) sample sizes and hypothesis testing
• e.g. behaviourist approach- general laws about association

Question 62

describe idiographic and nomothetic approaches in terms of objectivity/subjectivity

Answer 62

• nomothetic- objectivity- laws of behaviour only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised and objective way- ensures true replication occurs across samples of behaviour and reves the contaminating influence of bias
• idiographic approach- less likely to assert that objectivity is possible in psychological research- people’s individual experience of unique context that is important- rather than some underlying reality that is waiting to be discovered

Question 63

Arguments for the idiographic approach

Answer 63

Complete account:
- idiographic approach contributes to nomothetic
- uses in-depth qualitative methods- provides global description of one individual
- this may compliment the nomothetic approach by shedding further light on general laws or challenging such laws (e.g. HM developing knowledge on types of LTM that are more resistant to damage)
- suggests that even when the focus is on fewer individuals, the approach may still help to develop scientific laws of behaviour
COUNTERPOINT-
- still narrow and restricted
- meaningful generalisations can;t be made without further examples- no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour
- case studies tend to be less scientific due to reliance on subjective interpretation of researcher- open to bias
- suggests it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in he complete absence of nomothetic research

Can make predictions:
- Despite the idiographic approach not seeking to make predictions, it does have the ability to
- e.g. once a researcher has built up detailed observations of a few individuals, this can be used to make generalisations and formulate theories (as Freud did)
- This is useful as the amount of detail that qualitative data gathers can give an insight into the reasons why behaviour occurs whereas a nomothetic approach cannot

Can help develop the nomothetic approach:
- An idiographic and nomothetic
approach should not be seen as dichotomous, they can in fact complement each other
- Millon and Davis (1996) suggest
that research should start with the nomothetic approach (e.e. general diagnostic criteria) and once ‘laws’ have been made, they can then focus on a more idiographic understanding (e.g. unique experience of mental illness)
- e.g. may be seen in drug treatment in the future where individual ‘recipes’ are developed based on a mix of genetic and environmental insights
- This is likely to lead to more accurate and useful practical applications

Some scientific methods:
- using idiographic approach can seek objectivity in methods
- e.g. traingulation is used- findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared as a way of increasing their validity
- modern qualitative researchers are encouraged to reflect on own biases and preconceptions- reflexivity

Question 64

Arguments against the idiographic approach

Answer 64

Practical applications difficult:
- As the idiographic approach only focuses on the individual and does not make comparisons, then any data gathered is unique to that
individual
- This means that it becomes difficult to design any practical applications, as there is no baseline to compare behaviour to
- This means that a large amount of time is spent collecting data that may have no real benefit to everyday life

Lack of scientific rigour:
- As the idiographic approach focuses on qualitative data, it means
that there is a huge element of subjectivity involved by the researcher
- These methods also rely on self-report by the participant, which can be affected heavily by memory and social desirability
- This means that any findings may
be subject to bias and it is therefore difficult to draw any meaningful conclusions from the data

Question 65

Arguments for the nomothetic approach

Answer 65

Scientific:
- clear focus in scientific methods
- uses controlled methodology, with standardised measurements and analysis data objectively using statistical analysis
- This high level of control allows cause and effect to be established and gives higher validity to any research findings or predictions made and gives psychology greater scientific credibility

Enables prediction of behaviour:
- As the nomothetic approach creates laws/theories of behaviour, it allows us to make predictions of how people will behave
- These predictions are useful when treating mental illness (for example)
- It would be too time consuming to
produce personal therapies for unique individuals (an idiographic approach), so
general predictions allow for the design of treatments such as drugs

Question 66

Arguments against the nomothetic approach

Answer 66

Doesn’t tell us ‘why’:
- despite gathering a large amount of data, it only focuses on averages and statistical significance
- This does not tell us anything about the individual experiences of the individual that have led them to achieve this ‘score’
- Therefore this means that the data does not give us a full picture of human behaviour

Humans are complex individuals:
- the laws/theories made will not apply to all people
- Humans are complex and are influenced a wide range of factors
- e.g. can be seen by the differences between MZ twins raised in the same environment and the fact that medication only works for around 2/3 of patients
- Therefore it is more suitable to consider idiographic and nomothetic approaches as complementary and to look at a topic from both perspectives

Losing the person:
- loss of understanding of the individual
- preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control- accused of losing the ‘whole person’ within psychology
- e.g. knowing that there is a 1% lifetime risk of developing schizophrenia tells us little about what life is like for someone diagnosed with the disorder
- understanding the subjective experience of schizophrenia may well prove useful when it comes to devising appropriate treatment options, for example
- means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometime fail to relate to ‘experience’

Question 67

Describe ethical implications

Answer 67

• concern the consequences that psychological research (studies/theories) may have
• refers to the impact that the findings of the research (or the theory) may have on society
• e.g. the way the findings are communicated to the public, how the findings may influence our perception of a particular social group and how the findings are used

Question 68

Describe socially sensitive research

Answer 68

• research where there are potential
  social implications, either directly for the participants in the research or for the individuals in society who were the target population of the study
• Some psychological research has more of an impact on society than others e.g.studies into short-term memory are unlikely to be sensitive, unlike genetic explanations for aggressive behaviour
• can often attract attention from the
  media, which can then amplify the socially sensitive nature of the research and the conclusions drawn
• It is important that psychologists still study ‘taboo’ subjects; their responsibility lies with the care they take with the findings

Question 69

Who outlined 3 issues that create a concern about sensitivity

Answer 69

Lee (1993)

Question 70

Name the 3 issues Lee outlined (social sensitivity)

Answer 70

• Issues considered private, stressful or sacred
• Issues that if revealed might cause stigmatisation or fear
• Issues related to social conflict

Question 71

Who identified different ethical issues that can arise during the research process (when social consequences can occur)

Answer 71

Sieber and Stanley (1998)

Question 72

Describe Seiber and Stanley’s suggestion about ethical issues/social sensitivity

Answer 72

Can occur as part of:
- interpretation and application of findings
- the research question

Question 73

Describe ethical issues that can occur as part of the research question

Answer 73

• the RQ itself could be potentially damaging to certain groups (e.g. ‘Are the racial differences in IQ?)
• the potential wider implications need to be carefully considered- e.g. some studies may be seen as giving scientific credibility to prejudice and discrimination
• researchers should therefore consider a risk/benefit ratio before conducting research
• scientific freedom- researchers have the duty to engage in research but at the same time have an obligation not to harm participants, institutions, or social groups in society
• e.g. Kitzinger and Coyle- note how research into relationships has been guilty of a form of heterosexual bias within which homosexual relationships were compared and judged against heterosexual norms

Question 74

Describe ethical issues that can occur as part of dealing with participants

Answer 74

• issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm may be especially important in socially sensitive research
• e.g. if studying domestic violence, PPs may worry that ex-partner will find out, may be destressing to describe experiences- such PPs may provide informed consent but not fully understand effect of research

Question 75

Describe ethical issues that can occur as part of the way findings are used

Answer 75

• Research findings can be used for purposes other than the researcher intended- e.g. the development of IQ tests led some to use them to demonstrate inferiority of certain groups
• need to consider validity- If a study has been conducted with poor methodology that will affect the validity of the findings, the public (and media) may not be aware of this
• This may lead invalid findings to the detriment of certain social groups
• e.g. Burt (1955)- heritability of intelligence- used for 11+ exams
• Researchers should consider
  what the research might be used for and what would happen if it was used for the wrong purpose
• should consider publicising from media- e.g.Owens research on people in minimally conscious state received enormous media attention at the time as it appeared he had made contact with patients who were thought to be ‘unreachable’

Question 76

Describe ways to overcome ethical issues

Answer 76

• Sensitive briefing and debriefing of participants
• Care in relation to publication
• Care in disclosure of results and anonymity of participants
• All participants should be treated in an equitable manner and vital resources are not withheld from one group over another
• Consider carefully who is funding the research and their motives for the data (whether they would misuse it)

Question 77

Arguments for conducting socially sensitive research

Answer 77

Socially sensitive research is necessary:
- Despite the potential implications of sensitive research, research into sensitive topic areas should not be avoided just because the findings may have negative consequences for the participants or the group in society they represent
- It would be irresponsible of researchers to avoid these topics and actually by studying underrepresented groups, it may promote greater sensitivity and understanding
- This in turn can help to reduce prejudice and discrimination in society
- e.g. the Kinsey report has been credited as the reason homosexuality was no longer described in the DSM-1 as ‘sociopathic personality disorder’ (1952), and got removed from the DSM (1973)- report concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
- report also included data on 6000 women- caused outrage at the time as these were topics that no one discussed
COUNTER-
- in some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied- which in some cases could have been anticipated
- e.g. research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found that there is a criminal gene- if true does it mean that someone could be convicted on the basis that they have such a gene or should they be excused because they cannot be held responsible for any wrongdoing
- suggests that when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences

Practical applications:
- Many of the areas that are socially sensitive are important to research as they have the potential to make changes in society
- e.g. research into the effects of attachment types could be used to support parents in order to encourage secure attachments in the early years
- This would be beneficial to society as these changes can have positive economic implications for society

Governmental applications:
- the government looks to research when developing important social policies- e.g. Decisions related to childcare, education, mental health provision, crime
- clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically motivated views
- in the UK there are independent groups such as the ONS (Office for National Statistics)- describe themselves as being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK’s economy, society and population
- such data is used in psychological research
- means that psychologists have an important role to play in providing high-quality research on socially sensitive topics
- This would be beneficial to society as these changes can have positive economic implications for society

Reflexivity:
- one way to deal with socially sensitive research is by avoiding it- Americal Psychological Association reported that ethical committees approved 95% of non-sensitive proposals that didn’t include ethical problems whereas sensitive proposals were only approved about 50% of the time
- However, Seiber and Stanley at first thought ignoring such topics is not a responsible approach
- one possibility is to follow qualitative researchers who are more upfront about their own biases and are reflexive in their approach- reflect on how personal beliefs affect the research process

Question 78

Arguments against conducting socially sensitive research

Answer 78

Inadequacy of current guidelines:
- Currently psychologists have to follow the BPS guidelines for the conduct of their research
- These guidelines protect the participants in the research process, but may not actually deal with all of the possible ways that the research may have a negative effect on a group of people or section of society
- e.g. at present researchers do not need to consider how others may use their research findings
- Therefore ethical considerations need to be reconsidered, especially in a technological age where misinterpreted findings can go viral

Social control:
- One problem with socially sensitive research findings is that the influence of the findings can be difficult to change, even when there is little evidence for them or even a wealth of evidence against them
- This may be because socially sensitive findings can sometimes fit with the current zeitgeist (the current mood of society) and can in turn
reinforce stereotypes and legitimise them with scientific evidence
- This can lead to social control over particular groups
- e.g. Herrnstein and Murray (1994) used psychological research to argue that it was a waste of resources to improve the educational opportunities for disadvantaged groups because these groups are genetically destined to be low achievers
- Therefore socially sensitive research may have wider-reaching, long term consequences beyond what the researcher can foresee

Psychologists have limitations:
- Whilst psychologists should have good intentions and be careful, Howitt (1991) argues that they should recognise their own limitations, as psychologists can only give a particular view of human nature, which is affected by society
- E.g. studies into depression in the West focus on emotional symptoms, however in Japan physical symptoms are reported when depressed
- This means research can never be objective and value-free and can never give the absolute truth
- Therefore psychologists should
not impose a professional view on others about socially sensitive issues from a supposed scientific ‘high ground’
- So even when psychologists consider the impact of their research, it cannot
buffer against ethical implications

Poor research design:
- pull research design mate leads to erroneous findings which, once in the public arena, continue to have an impact
- E.g. Burts research- led to 11+ exams- continue to be used even after fraud exposed- still selection tool in parts of UK today- similarly, access to many independent schools based on childs performance in entrance exam taken in year 6, likely based on the same reasoning- that genetic potential has revealed itself by this age
- therefore any research on socially sensitive topics needs to be planned with the greatest care to ensure the findings are valid because of the injuring effects on particular groups of people