Gender

Question 1

Describe sex

Answer 1

• a person’s biological status as either male or female
• initially determined by different chromosomes: Males have XY whereas females have XX
• These sex chromosomes influence hormonal differences (eg production of testosterone or oestrogen) and differences in anatomy (such as reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth etc)
• sex is innate (genetic) and is the result of nature

Question 2

Describe gender

Answer 2

• refers to a person’s psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine (so how they ‘feel’ about which gender they are)
• also includes the attitudes, roles and behaviours that we associate with being either male or female
• This is heavily influenced by our social norms and cultural expectations
• a person may become more masculine or more feminine depending on the social context they are in, and the norms and expectations associated with it
• Therefore gender is partly influenced by our environment so is partly due to nurture

Question 3

Compare sex and gender

Answer 3

Sex is a biological fact and cannot change whilst gender is more fluid and a person may become more masculine or more feminine depending on social context, norms or expectations

Question 4

Describe what the relationship between sex and gender is foremost people, and what happens if this isn’t the case

Answer 4

• For most, their biological sex and gender identity correspond
• some, however, experience gender dysphoria (previously referred too as gender identity disorder)- their biological prescribed sex doesn’t reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as being
• some who experience this may choose to have gender reassignment surgery in order to being her sexual identity in line with their gender identity

Question 5

Describe intersex

Answer 5

• Some children are inadvertently exposed to hormonal imbalances in the womb so that their genitals appear neither obviously male nor female at birth
• their parents are usually encouraged to opt for surgery to make the child’s sex clear
• About 1.7% of the population is born with intersex variation, but the level of variation in sexual anatomy tends to mean that some people are unaware of the condition until puberty or find themselves infertile in adulthood

Question 6

What are sex-role stereotypes

Answer 6

• a set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society
• a set of shared expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for males and females
• communicated and reinforced through society and the media
• Parents, peers and the media are therefore agents of socialisation and support the stereotypical expectations we have of men and women
• Some sex role stereotypes have no basis (eg women love shopping and men hate it) but some are supported by biological brain differences (eg women are better at multi-tasking)
• although some have some truth, the may lead too exist assumptions being formed such as that women may be overemotional in the workplace

Question 7

Describe studies which provide evidence for sex-stereotyped behaviour

Answer 7

Smith and Lloyd (1973):
- found that when playing with children adults provided children with stereotypical boys and girls toys based on the child’s appearance. Therefore reinforcing stereotypical male and female roles

Furnham and Farringer (2000):
- in a study of TV adverts found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in a professional setting whereas women were more likely to be shown in a familial role within domestic settings

Question 8

Describe a study investigating the biological differences between men and women

Answer 8

Ingalhalikar et al (2014):
- scanned the brains of 949 young men and women using high-tech diffusion MRI
- mapped the connections between different brain areas
- found women’s brains has better connections beween the left and the right sides of the brain, while mens brains display more activity within the individual parts, especially the cerebellum (controls Motor skills)
- suggests the female brain is hard-wired to cope between with several tasks at once, whereas the male brain prefers to focus on a single complex task

Question 9

Describe a study into gender fluidity

Answer 9

McGinley et al:
- studied a family in the Dominican Republic- Batista family
- 4 children in the family- girl at birth then males at puberty
- their vaginas closed over, testicles appeared and they grew normal sized penises
- during prenatal development, dihydrotestosterone was missed
- the boys abandoned their female gender identity with very few problems of adjustment, and quickly adapted to their new roles as boys and men- suggests gender identity may be more flexible than fixed

Question 10

Describe the meaning of androgyny in every day language

Answer 10

Having the appearance of someone who cannot be clearly identified as male or female

Question 11

Describe the androgyny in psychology

Answer 11

• refers to a personality type that is a mixture or balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours
• Sandra Bem suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being because androgynous people are better equipped to adapt to a range of situations than non-androgynous people
• Both males and females can be androgynous
• A very masculine female or a very feminine male is not because they don’t exhibit the necessary balance of male and female traits

Question 12

Describe how androgyny can be measured

Answer 12

The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) - 1974

Question 13

Describe the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 13

• The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny
• uses a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral)
• Respondents rate themselves on a 7-point scale for each item (where 1 is never true of me and 7 is always true of me)
• Numerical scores for all masculine items are added up and the same for all feminine items and then the person is given a score for masculinity, femininity and androgyny
• produces scores across 2 dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous- undifferentiated)
• Masculine items include: athletic, ambitious, aggressive, willing to take risks
• Feminine items include: affectionate, gentle, warm, loves children
• Neutral items include: conscientious, friendly, reliable, truthful

Question 14

Strengths of the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 14

Quantitative approach:
- numerical approach- useful for research purposes when necessary
- e.g. to quantify a dependent variale in a research study
BUT- Spence (1984)- argued there is more to gender than a set of behaviours typical of one gender or the other- qualitative methods offer better way of analysing gender
- could combine different scales e.g. the personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds another dimension (instrumentality and expressivity) to the BRSI
- suggests both qualitative and quantitative approaches together may be useful; for studying different aspects of gender

Validity:
- 50 male & 50 female judges rated 200 traits in terms of whether they were masculine, feminine or neutral and the highest 20 traits in each section were chosen
- The BSRI was then piloted on over 1000 students and the results corresponded with the PPs own description of their gender identity
- This suggests the BSRI is an accurate measure of androgyny

Reliability:
- The results of the BSRI have high test- retest reliability as they are consistent over time
- A follow up study (see the validity point) using a smaller sample of the same students a month later found similar scores, with a correlation ranging between .76 to .94
- A short form of the scale was also produced with only 30 items- This has improved the internal reliability of the test as less socially desirable items were removed (such as childlike)- A correlation of .90 was found between this and the original.
- This therefore gives confidence to the measurement items in the BSRI.

Practical applications:
- If androgyny is better for physical and psychological health as Bem suggests, then parents could be encouraged to raise children free to assume characteristics of either gender
- To do so would require changes to how society views gender, but this could have huge social implications for reducing burden on the NHS

Question 15

Weaknesses of the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 15

Androgyny and well being:
- Bem placed great emphasis on the idea that androgynous individuals are psychologically healthy
- However, this has been challenged by Adams and Sherer (1985)- suggest that individuals who show more masculine traits are better adjusted as these traits are more valued in Western societies
- Therefore any predictions or interventions made based on the BSRI may not be accurate/useful

Temporal validity:
- The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago- it relies on stereotypical and outdated notions of masculinity and femininity (such as women should be gentle and childlike), which have become blurred over recent years
- Therefore the BSRI lacks temporal validity and is therefore no longer relevant

Ethnocentric:
- BRSI is ethnocentric as it was devised using a panel of judges from the USA, so only relies on Western notions of maleness and femaleness such as men should be strong whilst women should be gentle
- notions of maleness and femaleness in this country may not be shared across all cultures and societies
- This means that the results may not be valid in other cultures

Self-awareness:
- people may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny
- Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on people having an understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not necessarily have
- Gender is a social construct which may be more open to interpretation than, say, sex (which is a biological fact)
- Furthermore, the questionnaire’s scoring system is subjective and people’s application of the 7-point scale may differ
- suggests the BRSI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing masculinity, femininity, or androgyny

Question 16

What are chromosomes

Answer 16

• found in the nucleus of living cells and carry information in the form of genes
• made from DNA
• genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of living things
• Generally there are 46 chromosomes in the human body and they are arranged into 23 pairs

Question 17

Describe the relationship between chromosomes and sex

Answer 17

• the last pair of chromosomes determines our biological sex (XX for Females and XY for males)
• All normal egg cells produced by a human ovary have an X chromosome whereas half of the sperm carry an X chromosome and half carry a Y
• The baby’s sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises the egg (whether it has an X or a Y chromosome)
• The Y chromosome carries a gene called the SRY (sex determining region Y)
• The SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo and these produce androgens (male sex hormones), which cause the embryo to become a male – without these it becomes a female
• however sometimes this basic pattern is disrupted resulting in atypical sex patterns

Question 18

Describe hormones

Answer 18

• A chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs

Question 19

Describe the differences in chromosomes and hormones in influencing sex/gender

Answer 19

Chromosomes determine a person’s sex but hormones can influence gender development.

Question 20

Describe the role of hormones in developing gender/sex

Answer 20

• Prenatally in the womb, hormones act upon brain development and cause development of the reproductive organs
• At puberty, hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair, breasts etc
• Males and females usually produce the same hormones but in different quantities e.g. males produce a number of hormones called androgens like testosterone- females also produce testosterone but in smaller amounts

Question 21

Name hormones that influence gender

Answer 21

• testosterone
• oestrogen
• oxytocin

Question 22

Describe testosterone

Answer 22

• A hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes (but in smaller amounts in female ovaries)
• It is associated with aggressiveness as this is adaptive (according to the evolutionary explanation- sexual competition and ‘hunter’ role)
• Testosterone begins to be produced at about 8 weeks gestation - it controls the development of male sex organs- if a genetic male produces no testosterone during foetal dveelopnet, no sex male organs will appear, and if a genetic female produces high levels, male sex organs may appear
• A lot of research in humans and animals have linked it to aggression e.g. Nanne Van de Poll et al (1988) found that female rats who were injected with testosterone showed more physical and sexual aggression than normal female rats

Question 23

Describe oestrogen

Answer 23

• The primary female hormone, which plays an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system
• It is also present in males in smaller amounts where it reduces body fat and maintains sex drive
• determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
• It has also been suggested that it causes high emotions and irritability during the menstrual cycle (PMT or PMS)
• PMS has even been successfully used as a defence in crimes such as shoplifting and murder, however, some researchers dispute its existence

Question 24

Describe oxytocin

Answer 24

• A hormone which causes the uterus to contract during labour and stimulates lactation)
• produced in large amounts during labour and allows women to breastfeed, whilst reducing the stress hormone cortisol, allowing women to bond with their baby
• reduces cortisol and facilitates bonding- sometimes referred to as the ‘love hormone’
• In times of stress, oxytocin dampens the fight-or-flight response and triggers the tend-and-befriend response so that women protect their young and form protective alliances with other women
• This doesn’t happen in men because testosterone dampens the effects of oxytocin
• Men produce less of this hormone (fuelling stereotypes that men are less interested in intimacy in relationships) but research has shown that during love-making activities, both sexes produce it in roughly the same quantities

Question 25

Strengths of the Role of Chromosomes and Hormones in Sex and Gender

Answer 25

Supporting research for chromosome:
- case of David Reimer
- Dr Money believed that a boy whose penis had been burnt off during circumcision as a baby should be brought up as a girl but when the child reached puberty, he reverted to living as a man
- This supports the role of biological factors in gender development because it shows that biological factors were more important than socialisation in determining gender

Supporting research for sex hormones:
- Van Goozen et al (1995)
- studied transgender-women (male to female) who were undergoing hormone treatment and found that they had decreased aggression and decreased visuo-spatial skills, whilst transgender-men showed the opposite
- suggests that it was the change in sex hormones which created the change in gender behaviour

Supporting research for sex hormones 2:
- Dabbs et al (1995)
- found that prison offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes
- supports the role of hormones on gender as it suggests that high testosterone is linked to stereotypical male crimes

Supporting research for testosterone:
- Wang et al (2000)
- male hypogonadism- conditioned caused by a mans testes failing to produce normal testosterone levels
- gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 dtas
- changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido were monitored
- testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significant increases in muscle were observed within the sample
- study shows that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on make sexual arousal and physical development in adulthood
BUT- other evidence for testosterones less convincing- on a double-blind placebo study, O’Conner et al (2004) increased testosterone levels in healthy young men- found no significant increase in e.g. interactional (frequency of intercourse) or non-interactional (sex drive) components of sexual behaviour in PPs, men also had no change in aggression levels- suggests additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual/aggressive behaviour- BUT doesn’t challenge role of testosterone in early development

Question 26

Weaknesses of the Role of Chromosomes and Hormones in Sex and Gender

Answer 26

Conflicting evidence:
- Tricker et al (1996)
- used a double blind study and found that 43 males who were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo showed no significant differences in aggression after 10 weeks
- suggests that testosterone is not linked to aggressive behaviour, because if it was you would expect a change in the experimental group

Conflicting theories:
- Alternative theories reduce the validity of the role of chromosomes and hormones
- Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) found significantly more differences in behaviour within the sexes than between them
-This suggests that alternative explanations such as Social Learning Theory may be more appropriate, as it considers the importance of cultural differences in gender- role behaviour (eg more androgynous behaviour is now appropriate in Western Societies)

Population validity:
- Many studies of biological factors in gender lack population validity because they involve small samples of unusual people (eg Van Goozen’s study) or are conducted on animals
- This limits the extent to which meaningful generalisation can be made from the results of such studies and means that sex hormones may affect human gender behaviour differently

Social factors ignored:
- Hodstedede et al (2010)
- claim that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms rather than biology
- equate notions of masculinity and femininity with weather whole countries are individualist or collectivist
- countries that place individual competition and independence above the needs of the community are more masculine in their outlook- would include advanced capitalist societies e.g. the US and UK- means traditional masculine traits will be more highly valued in these societies
- this challenges biological explanations of gender behaviour and suggests social factors may ultimately be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes

Reductionist:
- Accounts that reduce gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones
have been accused of ignoring or underplaying alternative explanations
- The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence of thought processes such as schema
- Even though changes in thought processes may come about through maturation of the developing brain, they are not adequately explained by the biological model
- the psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point out the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction within the family
- this suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone

Pathologising gender:
- has been suggested that PMS can be caused by fluctuating hormones in a woman’s menstrual cycle
- but Rodin (1992) objects to the medical category PMS on the grounds that this stereotypes women experience and emotion
- claim that PMS is a social construction, not a biological fact, which encourages damaging stereotypes of ‘irrational woman’- affecting how women are treated in society

Question 27

Define atypical sex chromosome patterns, name 2 examples

Answer 27

• Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX or XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
• Kleinfelters syndrome, Turners syndrome

Question 28

Outline Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 28

• affects around 1 in 600 males
• individuals with out are biological males, and have the anatomical appearance of a male
• have an extra X chromosome- result in sex chromosome structure of XXY
• 10% diagnosed prenatally
• Approximately 2/3 people with this condition are not aware of it until it is diagnosed during a medical examination (often because they are trying to have a baby with their partner and she is not becoming pregnant)

Question 29

Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 29

• reduced body hair
• rounding of body contours
• some breast development at puberty (gynaecomastia)
• underdeveloped genitals
• long, gangly limbs
• poor coordination and general clumsiness
• also more prone to health problems that usually affect females e.g. breast cancer

Question 30

Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 30

• Poor reading ability and language skills
• problems with executive function e.g. memory and problem solving
• shy, passive and may lack interest in sexual activity
• may also not respond well to stressful situations

Question 31

Treatments of Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 31

• hormone replacements in the form of testosterone

Question 32

Outline Turners syndrome

Answer 32

• affects 1 in 2000-5000 biological females
• caused by the absence of one of the 2 allocated X chromosomes- referred to as XO
• means individuals have 45 rather than the usual 46 chromosomes

Question 33

Physical characteristics of turners syndrome

Answer 33

• no menstrual cycle (amenorrhoea)
• infertile
• do not develop breasts at puberty- instead have a broad ‘shield’ chest
• low set ears
• ‘webbed; neck (area of folded skin that runs along neck to shoulders)
• hips are of similar size to their breasts, high hip:waist ratio- so they tend to retain the appearance of prepubescent girls rather than women

Question 34

Psychological characteristics of Turners syndrome

Answer 34

• higher than average reading ability
• however their performance on spatial, mathematical and visual memory tasks is lower than most other women
• often socially immature and find it difficult to fit in with peers

Question 35

Turners syndrome treatment

Answer 35

Hormone replacement in the form of oestrogen and progesterone

Question 36

Strengths of atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 36

Nature-Nurture debate:
- Studies of people with atypical sex chromosome patterns contribute to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate in gender development
- by comparing people who have the syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals its becomes possible too see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups
- Girls with Turner’s syndrome have higher verbal ability than girls without Turner’s so it is logical to assume that there is a biological basis for the behaviours that are associated with atypical sex chromosome patterns
- This is useful for parents to know the cause is nature, as they can be given support rather than having false hope that the situation can be changed

Practical application:
- Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Turners and Klinefelter’s, as well as more positive outcomes in the future
- Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) can be used to benefit people with atypical sex chromosome patterns
- Testosterone can be given to Klinefelter’s males when they reach puberty- increases muscle density, deepens the voice, strengthens bones and stimulates facial and body hair growth
- Growth injection hormones in early childhood can increase height in Turner’s females
- At puberty, they may be given oestrogen to start breast development and also progesterone to begin periods and keep the womb healthy
- Herlihy et al (2011)- Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelters- found those who has been identified and treated from very young age experiences significant benefits in terms of managing their syndrome compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
- This can lead to changes that have positive effects on those affected, if treated from a young age

Knowing vs not knowing:
- early knowledge may help a person understand why they appear/act differently from other children of the same age
0 means the child doesn’t feel their physical and behavioural differences are ‘their fault’
- also means early access to medical and psychological support is possible
BUT- not knowing avoids a self-fulfilling prophecy as self-expectations of capabilities are created

Question 37

Strengths of atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 37

Nature-Nurture debate:
- Studies of people with atypical sex chromosome patterns contribute to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate in gender development
- by comparing people who have the syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals its becomes possible too see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups
- Girls with Turner’s syndrome have higher verbal ability than girls without Turner’s so it is logical to assume that there is a biological basis for the behaviours that are associated with atypical sex chromosome patterns
- This is useful for parents to know the cause is nature, as they can be given support rather than having false hope that the situation can be changed

Practical application:
- Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of Turners and Klinefelter’s, as well as more positive outcomes in the future
- Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) can be used to benefit people with atypical sex chromosome patterns
- Testosterone can be given to Klinefelter’s males when they reach puberty- increases muscle density, deepens the voice, strengthens bones and stimulates facial and body hair growth
- Growth injection hormones in early childhood can increase height in Turner’s females
- At puberty, they may be given oestrogen to start breast development and also progesterone to begin periods and keep the womb healthy
- Herlihy et al (2011)- Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelters- found those who has been identified and treated from very young age experiences significant benefits in terms of managing their syndrome compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
- This can lead to changes that have positive effects on those affected, if treated from a young age

Knowing vs not knowing:
- early knowledge may help a person understand why they appear/act differently from other children of the same age
0 means the child doesn’t feel their physical and behavioural differences are ‘their fault’
- also means early access to medical and psychological support is possible
BUT- not knowing avoids a self-fulfilling prophecy as self-expectations of capabilities are created

Question 38

Weaknesses of atypical chromosome patterns

Answer 38

Cause and effect:
- It is difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship between atypical sex chromosome patterns and certain behaviours
- Girls with Turner’s syndrome are also socially immature but this may be because they look childlike and are therefore treated as such by parents, teachers etc and this could also have an affect on their performance in school
- Therefore their behaviour may be due in part to environmental factors rather than their chromosomal patterns (nature)

Sampling issue:
- n order two identify the characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, it is neccessray to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder and build a database
- in this way we can see the full range of characteristics form mild to severe
- in general, oly this people who have the most severe symptoms are identifies, and therefore the picture of typical symptoms mat be distorted
- Boada et al (2009)- reports that prospective studies (following XXY individuals from birth) have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics- many individuals with Klinefelter’s don’t experience significant cognitive or psychological problems, and many are highly successful academically and in their personal lives/careers
- this suggests that the typical picture of Klinefelter’s and turners syndrome may well be exaggerated

Population validity:
- Studies of atypical sex chromosome patterns may lack population validity as it is difficult to generalise from atypical individuals to the wider population because they tend to be a small and unusual sample and thus unrepresentative
- They may also be treated differently because they look different and this can affect the contribution of such studies to the nature – nurture debate and make it difficult to draw any valid conclusions as to the influence of atypical chromosome patterns

Assumptions over ‘typical’ gender’:
- It is difficult to identify typical standard gender related behaviour for males and females as Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) found more difference in behaviour within the sexes than between them
- Therefore the presumption that individuals with Klinefelter’s or Turner’s are atypical may not be valid if they are based on stereotypical assumptions of ‘average’ as there may not be a typical standard for male and female behaviour

Question 39

Name different theories of Gender development

Answer 39

• cognitive- Kohlberg’s theory and gender Schema theory
• psychodynamic
• social learning theory

Question 40

Outline the principles of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 40

• cognitive-developmental theory
• a child’s understanding of gender rises, behaviours, and attitudes becomes more sophisticated with age
• this link with age comes as a result of biological maturation- as the brain develops, so does thinking
• Kohlberg believed his throw was universal- all children go through same stages in same order (linear) as a process of maturation and socialisation
• occurs due to Childs construction and interaction with the world
• As children discover they are M/F this causes them to identify with members of their gender (not the other way round)

Question 41

Name the stages of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 41

1) gender identity (2-3 years)
2) gender stability (4-6 years)
3) Gender constancy (7-12 years)

Question 42

Describe gender identity (Kohlberg’s theory of gender development)

Answer 42

• at around 2 years, children can correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl
• at 3 years, most children are able to identify other peoples genders
• understanding of gender not likely ton stretch much beyond simple labelling
• make their judgment on external features e.g. clothes
• do not view gender as permanent e.g. boys may say they ‘want to become a mummy’ when they’re older

Question 43

Describe gender stability (Kohlberg’s theory of gender development)

Answer 43

• at 4 years, realise their gender is fixed
• however, cannot apply logic to other people in other situations
• often confused by external changes in appearance- may describe a man with long hair as a woman and also believe that people change gender is they engage in activities that are more often associated with a different gender (e.g. a builder who’s a woman our a nurse who’s a man)

Question 44

Describe gender constancy (Kohlberg’s theory of gender development)

Answer 44

• around age of 6, children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations
• this understanding applied to others genders as well as own
• no longer confused by changes in outwards appearance- Although they may regard a man wearing a dress as unusual, a child is able to understand that he is still a man underneath
• Children of this age being to seek out gender-appropriate role-models to identify with and imitate- link to SLT
• once a child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence which confirms that concept- self-socialisation
• A tendency towards gender stereotyping begins to emerge at this age.

Question 45

Compare Kholbergs theory with SLT

Answer 45

Kohlberg’s theory predicts that children should start paying attention to same sex people and actively seeking gender role information, only after they have an
understanding of their sex – this is in direct contrast with SLT, which suggests that modelling occurs at an earlier age

Question 46

Strengths of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 46

Supporting research 1:
- Slaby and Frey (1975)
- offer empirical support for Kohlberg’s stage theory because all children who had achieved gender stability had also achieved gender identity and all who had achieved constancy had achieved both stability and identity
- This suggests gender development does follow the stages Kohlberg suggested
BUT- they also found that children’s lives are different now as they are exposed to gender information through the media at an earlier age so gender constancy may occur as young as 5, whilst following Kohlberg’s stages

Supporting research 2:
- Munroe et al (1984)
- found the sequence of gender development was consistent across other cultures (Kenya, Nepal, Belize and Samoa)
- supports the idea that gender develops through maturation as cognitive and intellectual capacity increases with age, rather than being due to cultural influences- suggests stages are universal

Supporting research 3:
- McConaghy (1975)
- found that children aged 3 1⁄2 to 4 tended to use hair length and clothes to decide upon the sex of a doll, rather than its genitals
- This suggests that they have achieved Gender Identity but not Gender Stability as they are making their judgement on external features

Supporting research 4:
- evidence suggests gender stereotyping emerges around age of 6 (gender constancy)
- Damon (1977)
- told children a story about George (a boy who liked to play with dolls)
- children asked to comment on the story
- 4 year olds said it was fine for boys to play with dolls, whereas 6 year olds said it was wrong- the had gone beyond understanding what boys and girls do to developing rules about what they ought to do
BUT- other research challenges the idea than an interest in gender-appropriate behaviour only develops around age 6- Bussey and Bandura (1999) found children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate tots and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite- contradicts what Kohlberg’s theory would predict, but may support gender schema theory

Question 47

Weaknesses of Kohlberg’s theory of gender development

Answer 47

Conflicting research:
- Thompson’s (1975)
- does not support Kohlberg’s theory as children as young as 2 could categorise items as belonging to either male or female, thus showing an understanding of gender long before they achieved constancy
- This suggests that children are able to do this before Kohlberg says they can and questions the way in which gender identity develops

Opposing theory:
- Martin and Little (1990)
- believe Kohlberg was wrong in suggesting children do not understand gender role behaviour until they have achieved constancy
- measured gender concepts, sex-type preferences and stereotypes in 3 – 5 year olds
- found that despite having only very basic gender understanding they still held strong gender stereotypes about what boys and girls were permitted to do
- goes against Kohlberg’s theory as it shows they had already started to gather information about gender appropriate behaviour before developing constancy

Methodology:
- Bem (1989)
- criticised the methodology used in many studies of the link between gender and cognitive developmen
- The key test of gender constancy in such studies is whether a child understands that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance and context
- Argued it is little wonder younger children are confused by this as, in our culture, this is how we demarcate one gender from another- identify men/women through clothes and hairstyples
- in reality, the best way to identify sex is through physical differences e.g. genetalia- according to Kohlberg, children don’t understand this
- in own study, demonstrated that 40% of children ages 3-5 years were able Tod demonstrate constancy if they were shown a naked photo of the child to be identified first (their judgements wee based on more than clothing)
- suggests that the typical day of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what children actually know

Method of reporting:
- Kohlberg’s Theory has methodological issues as it was developed using interviews with very young children, who may have lacked the vocabulary to express their understanding
- Therefore what they said may not have represented their understanding
- This means that the theory may lack validity and younger children may have a more complex understanding of gender than Kohlberg believed

Degrees of constancy:
- other researchers have suggested there may be different degrees of gender constancy
- Martin et al (2002)- praises Kohlberg’s theory for recognising that children’s understanding of their own and other peoples gender guides theor thoughts and behaviour
- however, point out that when and how this understanding affects children’s gender-related behaviour remains unclear
- suggest there may be different degrees of gender constancy
- an initial degree may orient children to the importance of gender e.g. in choosing friends for seeking information, and this may develop before the age of 6 (as Bandura and Bussey’s study suggests)
- a second degree of constancy (which develops later) may heighten the Childs responsiveness to gender norms, particularly under conditions of conflict e.g. choosing gender appropriate clothes/attitudes
- suggests that the acquisition of constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought

Nature vs nurture:
- Kohlbers sages are influences by changes in the developing brain and increased intellectual capacity with age
- although Kohberg claims children search for confirmation of gender stereotypes in the constancy stage, he fails to properly account for the socialisation process in the development of gender early on
- Bussey and Bandeau (1999) in their social-cognitive theory of gender claim that social processes of observation, imitations nd identification with role models play a much more influential role in gender development than cognitive structures

Question 48

Briefly outline the gender schema theory

Answer 48

Martin and Halverson:
- cognitive development; theory
- argues children’s understanding of gender changes with age (similar to Kohlberg)
- also shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning, rather than passively imitating and observing role models (SLT)
- a gender schema is an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience- guides a persons understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour in general

Question 49

What is the difference between the gender schema theory and Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 49

GST suggests children are motivated to begin to acquire knowledge about their gender at a much earlier age than Kohlberg suggested

Question 50

Describe the initial origination of gender schemas as according to the genders Chema theory

Answer 50

• At 2-3 years, once a child has established gender identity, they will begin to search the environment for info that encourages development of schemas
• children have a rigid idea of what gender is
• They learn gender related schemas from adults, peers and media so such schemas are related to cultural norms
• different to Kohlberg who suggests that gender is only rigid once gender constancy is achieved at age 7

Question 51

Describe the qualities of children’s initial gender schemas

Answer 51

• Children begin with a simple in-group and out-group schema
• Girls identify with other girls who share their interests and who they are similar to (same sex peers) and boys do the same
• The in-group puts down the out-group in order to raise their self-esteem- thus girls will say that boys are ‘nasty’ and girls who play with boys will be teased
• Gender schemas therefore influence social relationships with same and opposite sex peers

Question 52

Describe what his formed alongside in and out-group schemas

Answer 52

Own schemas:
- based on behaviours, traits and roles that are appropriate for them
- This will develop with experience
- E.g. a girl may start with “A doll is for a girl” to I am a girl, I can play with a doll”, so their schema directs their behaviour
- by 6 years of age, children have a rather fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender

Question 53

Describe the nature of children’s gender schemas

Answer 53

• Gender beliefs are resilient
• children ignore information that is not consistent with in-group information e.g. boys who see a male nurse tend to ignore this behaviour because it doesn’t fit their gender schema
• children have a much better understanding of their in-group schema- consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to info relevant to their gender identity, rather than too that of the other gender
• it is not until older (around 8 years old) that they elaborate schema for both genders

Question 54

Outline the basic development of gender schemas

Answer 54

• start off very basic e.g. males and females
• As a child experiences more, they develop these categories e.g. they add “things males wear” and “things females wear”
• Then further still “things males do” and “things females do”
• Eventually they will be able to develop whole new categories e.g. “Things both males and females can do”
• This system allows children to store new information and interpret new experience

Question 55

Strengths of the gender schema theory

Answer 55

Research support:
- Martin & Halverson’s (1983)
- Found children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember gender consistent photographs (e.g. a female washing up) after a week
- also tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall the photographs (e.g. women fixing car)
- suggests that memory may be distorted to fit with existing gender schemas as gender beliefs are resilient, and that children under 6 do this (opposes Kohlberg who thought this would only happen when children were older)

Research support 2:
- Martin & Little (1990)
- found that children under the age of 4 who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy still demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes
- contradicts Kohlberg’s theory as he states that children should not show sex-typed behaviour until they reach Gender Constancy
- supports GST as it shows that children acquire information about gender rules around the age of 2-3

Research support 3:
- Liben and Signorella (1993)
- showed young children pictures of adults engaging in stereotypical activities normally attributed to the opposite sex, for example a male nurse
- When later questioned what sex the person was, the children insisted it was a female
- suggests children registered the information in a way that was consistent with their existing in-group gender schemas and stereotypes- supports GST suggestion that schemas affect gender behaviour

Explain cultural differences:
- Cherry (2019)
- argues gender schema influence not only how people process information, but also what counts as culturally-appropriate gender behaviour
- traditional cultures, that believe women should take on nurturing role and men should pursue career, will raise childrenn who form schema which are consistent with this
- in societies perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to have more fluid gender schema
- GST can explain how gender schema can be transmitted between members of society and how cultural differences in gender stereotypes come about- contrasts with other theories e.g. psychodynamic that suggests gender identity is more driven by unconscious biological urges

Question 56

Weaknesses of the gender schema theory

Answer 56

Earlier gender identity:
- Gender identity may develop early than Martin and Halverson suggested
- Zolus et al (2009)
- longitudinal study of 82 children
- looked at onset of gender identity
- data obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language from age 9 to 21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of the children at play
- the key measure of gender dinette was taken to be how and when children labelled themselves as a boy/girl
- occurred on average at 19 months- almost as soon as children beigin to communicate- suggests children actually have a gender identity before this but just don’t communicate it
- suggests GST may underestimate children’s ability to use gender labels about themselves
BUT- it may not be apprpriate to argue about specific ages for Martin and Halversons theory- they suggest that they key point is the shifts in a Childs thinking and that the ages are averages rather than absolutes- possible that many children move through stages quicker/slower than others- sequence of development that is more important- suggests Zolus et al’s findings is not fundamental criticism of the theory

Ignores social factors:
- The theory places too much emphasis on cognitive factors and not enough on the role of social influence, including rewards and punishments that children receive for their gendered behaviour (for example little girls who play with boys may be teased but they will be praised if they wear pretty dresses)
- Therefore the theory is not a complete theory of gender development and needs to also consider operant conditioning

Schemas don’t change behaviour:
- This theory suggests that behaviour can be altered by changing a person’s schemas, however it is very difficult to change behaviour
- Kane & Sanchez (1994)- found that many married couples have strong views related to equality of the sexes and division of labour in the home, but this rarely affects their behaviour – women still undertake the majority of domestic roles in the household
- This contradicts GST as it would say that schemas of gender equality would lead to less gender stereotypical behaviour

Gender bias:
- GST may be beta-biased
- assumes that both genders develop gender identity in the same way at the same time
- The age at which gender schema appears in boys could be earlier than the theory suggests
- Bauer (1993)- found that boys make use of gender schemas by the age of 25 months, whereas girls are less likely to- may be because a man’s role is more defined whereas a woman’s role is more diverse
- Girls therefore see their mother involved in more diverse set of activities and roles
- Boys who model on their father have a more straightforward role model
- Therefore GST may not fully account for the complexity and social factors involved in gender identity

Timing:
- Kohlberg argues children must achieve gender constancy before they begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour and that once they have, they look for gender appropriate role models to imiate
- however Martin and Halverson suggest children start to show signs of gender appropriate behaviour shortly after achieving gender identity as children are in process of building in-group schema, so will select behaviour that correspond with their gender

Question 57

According to freud, which stage does gender development occur in

Answer 57

• The phallic stage- between the ages of 3 and 6- boys experience the oediupus and girls experience the electra complex
• Before this Freud says that children are bi-sexual because they have no concept of gender identity – they are neither masculine nor feminine

Question 58

Outline the oediupus complex

Answer 58

• Boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and are jealous of/hateful towards their father because he possess the mother
• The boy recognises that his father is more powerful than him and thinks that the father will castrate him if he finds out about the boys feelings for his mother (Castration Anxiety)
• To resolve this anxiety, the boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father

Question 59

Describe the electra complex

Answer 59

• Girls at this stage have a double resentment towards their mother
• Firstly she is a love rival for their father and secondly they feel that their mother castrated them in the womb- experience Penis Envy
• Carl Jung then suggested that over time, girls come to accept that they will never have a penis and substitute penis envy for the desire to have
  children, thus identifying with their mother
• The lack of castration anxiety means girls develop a weaker gender identity than boys

Question 60

Describe identification and internalisation (the psychodynamic explanation of gender development)

Answer 60

• Both sexes identify (want to be like them because they possess desirable characteristics) with their same-sex parent as a means of resolving their respective complexes
• They then internalise (adopt) the attitudes and values of their same sex parent and take on their gender identity
• Thus both boys and girls receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage

Question 61

Name Freuds case study involved in the psychodynamic explanation of gender

Answer 61

Litte Hans

Question 62

Describe the case study of little Hans

Answer 62

• 5 year old boy
• morbid fear of being bitten by horse
• Freud suggested fear of being Bitte represented his fear of castration by his father due to Hans’ love for his mother- as his father wore glasses like the horse’s blinkers
• suggested Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement
• Hans’ fear of horses disappeared once he identified with his father and received a ‘second-hand’ gender identity- suggesting that gender identity does develop by identification with the same sex model to resolve unconscious conflicts

Question 63

Strengths of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Answer 63

Case study:
- Little Hans- see previous cards
BUT- later discovered that Hans had seen Horse collapse and die on street- fear because of this not unconscious conflict

Supporting research for oedipus complex:
- Freuds explanation of gender development mean that for boys, ‘normal’ development depends on being raised by at least one male parent
- Rekers and Morey (1990)- rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3 t 11 years based on interviews with themselves and family
- of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’, 7%% has neither their biological father or a substitute father living with them
- suggests that being raised with no father may have a negative impact upon gender identity- in line with what Freuds theory would predict
BUT- generally the relationship between absent after and problems of gender identity isn’t supported- Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children with lesbian parents with 68 children from ‘traditional’ families- children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior, but the was n difference in terms of psychological adjustment or gender identity- contradicts Freuds theory as suggests father aren’t necessary for healthy gender identity development

Supporting research 2:
- Levin (1921)
- reported on the cases of 32 patients with bipolar disorder
- Psychoanalysis found that 22 suffered from an unresolved Electra complex and 12 had regressed to earlier stages of psychosexual development
- This suggests a link with unresolved stage of gender development and later mental health problems

Practical applications:
- If we know that children develop gender identity between the ages of 3-6 by identifying with the same sex parent, then parents can be informed on this and encouraged to demonstrate less gender stereotypical behaviour specifically at this age
- This would have the benefit of children having less rigid gender identity and may reduce gender inequality in society

Similarities with Kolbergs theory:
- Freud argued children don’t begin to whom gender appropriate behaviour until after age 6 years (when the oedipus/Electra complex is resolved)
- to some extent this agrees with Kohlberg’s theory, which suggests that children only begin to act in a gender appropriate way after they have achieved gender constancy (also around age 6)
BUT- Kohlberg suggests children develop gender gradually, via a sequence of stages as the Childs cognitive capacity increases- freud sees no such gradual build up- instead suggests gender is acquired all at once

Question 64

Weaknesses of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Answer 64

Conflicting evidence:
- Freud’s theory implies that sons of very harsh fathers will have a stronger gender identity than other boys because higher levels of castration anxiety should produce stronger identification with the father
- However, Blakemore & Hill (2008) found that boys with more liberal fathers are more secure in their masculine identity, which casts doubts on the validity of the psychodynamic explanation as it is the opposite to what it suggests about gender

Lack of scientific rigour:
- Freud’s methods have been criticised for lacking scientific rigour
- Many of the concepts he refers to are untestable and rely on subjective interpretation (eg castration anxiety, displacement, penis envy etc) as they are not observable
- large unconscious concepts e.f. penis envy- contrasts with other explanations of gender that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from controlled lab studies
- Karl Popper said that Freud’s theory is pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified
- As the psychodynamic explanation of gender development relies on Freud’s methods, it may not be valid

Gender bias:
- Freud wrote extensively about the oediupus complex, whereas theorising on girls parallel development was undertaken by Carl Jung- one of Freuds contemporaries- who also produced a psychoanalytic theory
- Karen Horney argues that womb envy in men is more powerful than penis envy in women, so she challenges the idea that female gender development is founded on a desire to be like a man
- This is an androcentric assumption and is based on the patriarchal Victorian era in which Freud lived
- His work on gender may therefore lack temporal validity and may not be applicable to current society with more gender equality

Question 65

Outline the social learning explanation of gender development

Answer 65

• suggests that all behaviour (including gender) is learned from observing and imitating other people
• draws attention to the NURTURE side of the argument because it acknowledges the influence of our environment in the form of powerful role models (parents, teachers, peers) as well as the wider influence of the social norms of our culture and the media
• includes direct and vicarious reinforcement, identification and modelling, and the meditational processes

Question 66

Describe direct reinforcement (SLT gender development)

Answer 66

• children are more likely to be reinforced (praised/encouraged) for demonstating behaviour that is stereotypically gender appropriate
• e.g. boys may be rewarded for being active in rough and tumble play, assertive, and not crying when falling over, whereas girls may be awarded for being passive, gentle, wearing pretty dresses like their mums and staying close to their parent
• The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender- appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement and it is through this that a child learns their gender identity

Question 67

Describe vicarious reinforcement (SLT gender)

Answer 67

• if the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child
• e.g. if a girl sees her mum get compliments for wearing a pretty dress, she may try to copy this behaviour when she is able to
• if the consequences are unfavourable (ie punished), the behaviour is less likely to be imitated e.g. if a bot sees a peer being teased for displaying ‘girly’ behaviour like crying, the boy is unlikely too copy this behaviour

Question 68

Describe identification (SLT gender)

Answer 68

• the process whereby a child attaches themselves yo someone who they see as like themselves or someone who they want to be like
• person posses qualities that they see as desirable
• these people are known as role models
• may be part of the Childs immediate environment (parents, teachers, siblings etc), or part of the media (such as poster or sportsperson)
• usually attractive, high status and crucially the same sex as the child

Question 69

Describe Modelling (SLT gender)

Answer 69

• A gender behaviour is firstly modelled- a precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by the observer eg a mother may stereotypically tidy the house
• Modelling is also used as the term for imitation so if a little girl copies her mother tidying the house, she is modelling the behaviour she has witnessed

Question 70

Name the meditational processes (SLT gender)

Answer 70

• Attention (watch mum doing the ironing)
• Retention (remember what she was doing when she was ironing)
• Motivation (hear dad thanking mum for ironing his shirts)
• Motor Reproduction (copy the action by ironing dolly’s clothes with a toy iron- must have physical ability to do so)

Question 71

Strengths of the social learning explanation of gender development

Answer 71

Research support:
- Smith & Lloyd (1978)
- found that when babies were dressed in either blue or pink, adults treated them differently
- Babies dressed in blue were given a hammer shaped rattle, and reinforced for being adventurous/active, and babies dressed in pink were given a cuddly toy and told they were ‘pretty’, and were reinforced for being passive
- suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is enforced at an early age through differential reinforcement
BUT differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences in behaviour- adults during interactions may be responding to innate gender difference that are already ether e.g. boys may innately be more active due to hormonal differences- suggests SL only part of the explanation of how children acquire gender-related behaviour

Changes in gender norms:
- Nowadays in Western Society there is less of a clear-cut distinction between stereotypically male or female behaviour than there was in the 1950s
- This can be explained by a change in cultural norms, which has lead to new forms of gender behaviour being acceptable
- Children observe different gender- related behaviours (such as girls playing football – there are lots of ladies’ teams now) and are motivated to copy because they see the models receiving praise for their behaviour
- e.g. Girls are no longer ridiculed for playing football- new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced
- There has been no corresponding change in people’s basic biology during this period so the shift is better explained by SLT (or other cognitive approaches like GST) than by the biological approach

Culture differences:
- SLT supports the differences in gender development that occur in different cultures (eg Western cultures are more likely to accept girls behaving as tom-boys than Eastern cultures because Western cultures have ‘tom-boy role models for girls to copy)
- This is because different role models are seen in different cultures and therefore people observe these models and are motivated to copy them

Question 72

Weaknesses of the social learning explanation of gender development

Answer 72

No developmental sequence/ignores cognitive factors:
- SLT is not a developmental theory – it suggests that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age (from birth – depending on motor reproduction)
- However Dublin suggests that selection and imitation of gender-role behaviour does not come until later, which is consistent with Kohlberg’s theory that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy
- seems illogical that e.g. children who are 2 learn same way as children who are 9
- This suggests that SLT may not be the only way in which gender-role behaviour develops and cognition and maturation also need to be considered

Ignores biology:
- SLT places little emphasis on the influence of genes & chromosomes in gender development and only focuses on the environment
- However the case of David Reimer shows that it is not possible to override chromosomal influence and that ‘Bruce’ did not learn female behaviour through the 4 mediational processes
- Therefore modern researchers prefer a biosocial theory of gender in which innate biological differences are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations

Ignores role of unconscious:
- Freud suggests that the SLT explanation for gender development over-relies on conscious meditational processes
- He felt that unconscious forces play an important role in determining gender development
BUT- Freud would support the importance of the same sex parent in gender development and identification/internalisation BUT for different reasons to SLT, would also not include as many other role models e.g. peers as SLT does
- Therefore SLT may be a too simplistic explanation of gender development.

Question 73

Define gender roles and culture, and name two this is investigated

Answer 73

• gender roles- A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for the other
• Culture- The ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society
  cross cultural research

Question 74

Briefly outline the nature of cross cultural research for investigating gender roles

Answer 74

• informs us on the nature-nurture debate of gender-role behaviour- If a behaviour is the same across cultures, then we can assume it is innate (nature), whereas if it varies and is culturally specific, then it is likely to be due to shared norms or socialisation (nurture)

Question 75

name an example of a cross cultural studies into gender roles

Answer 75

Margaret Mead (1935)

Question 76

Briefly outline Meads research procedure (culture/gender)

Answer 76

• investigated 3 tribal groups in Palau New Guinea- the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the the Tchambuli

Question 76

Briefly outline Meads research procedure (culture/gender)

Answer 76

• investigated 3 tribal groups in Palau New Guinea- the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the the Tchambuli

Question 76

Briefly outline Meads research procedure (culture/gender)

Answer 76

• investigated 3 tribal groups in Palau New Guinea- the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the the Tchambuli

Question 77

Describe Meads findings on the Arapesh

Answer 77

Found they were gentle and responsive (similar to the Western stereotype of femininity)

Question 78

Describe Meads findings on the Mundugumor

Answer 78

Found they were aggressive and hostile (similar to the Western stereotype of masculinity)

Question 79

Describe Meads findings on the Tchambuli

Answer 79

The Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, whilst men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’ (the reverse of the Western stereotype)

Question 80

Describe Meads conclusions (culture/gender)

Answer 80

• suggests there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender, and that gender roles may be culturally determined rather than biological
• Mead later conceded that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours but still argued that the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed, results from cultural norms
• The effect of culture can be seen in the way that gender expectations vary from one culture to another- whilst all cultures generally believe that women are more conformist than men, the difference varies considerably by culture

Question 81

Describe cultural similarities in gender development

Answer 81

David Buss (1995):
- found a consistent pattern in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents
- Found Women prefer to find a mate who can offer wealth and resources whilst men prefer youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner
- Potentially because women can only get pregnant once every 9 months, meaning they want their partner to invest resources into their offspring, and men want youthful and more fertile astray want to invest their resources with the highest chances of success

Monroe and Monroe (1975):
- found that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines (males are typically breadwinners and females are nurturers)
- potentially because women have to breast feed

Question 82

Describe social factors in cultural gender development

Answer 82

• Parents, teachers and peers (or any other powerful role model) in each culture directly reinforce gender stereotypical behaviour that is appropriate to that culture
• SLT also suggests that we observe gender stereotypical behaviour for our culture and then we imitate the behaviour if we identify with the model and particularly if we gain vicarious reinforcement by seeing them rewarded

Question 83

Strengths of cultural influences on gender roles

Answer 83

Research support:
- Hofstede (2001)
- argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere
- this has lead yo a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialist societies
- in traditional societies women still occupy the oil elf house-maker as a result of social, cultural, and religious pressures
- this suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context

Research support 2:
- Medicine (1997)
- argued that the blurring of gender roles can be clearly seen in the Lakota society where they have a word, ‘winkte’ meaning ‘wants to be like a woman’
- In Lakota society, some males did not want to be warriors and could be a ‘winkte’
- Those labelled winkte excelled in women’s crafts and preferred to take care of the children
- Children were regarded as autonomous and it was seen as acceptable by parents to become winkte
- This supports the suggestion that gender is not fixed and is influenced by our cultural norms.

Change over time:
- Alleye (2011)
- suggests that we should consider historical changes in cultural difference in gender roles, eg women in the UK continue to perform more of the domestic duties and occupy less powerful roles in business but this gender gap is decreasing
- This can also be seen with the introduction of the Equality Act
- This supports the role of changing cultural influences on gender development

Practical applications:
- If gender is a result of nurture (culture) and is not biological, it gives promise to being able to change gender roles
- This is important in societies where there is not gender equality and women are discriminated against
- For example in 2014 in Japan only 11% of seats in parliament were held by women
- Therefore gender equality movements are likely to get more support if gender is viewed as open to change and not fixed

Question 84

Weaknesses of cultural influences on gender roles

Answer 84

Meads methodology:
- Mead’s work has been criticised for observer bias and for making sweeping generalisations of gender related behaviour based on a relatively short period of study
- Freeman (1983)- conducted a follow up study of people from Papau New Guinea- suggests that Mead was misled by her PPs but also that her preconceptions of what she would find in other cultures had influenced her findings
- Mead’s findings about cultural influence on gender roles may not be valid and culture may have less of an impact than she suggested- example of ethnocentrism

Ignores evolution:
- Williams and Best (1990)
- tested 2800 students in 30 countries
- found gender similarities between cultures for the psychological characteristics assigned to both males and females
- e.g. men were seen as more dominant, aggressive and autonomous, whereas women were viewed as more nurturing
- These similarities across culture may be more to do with the impact on evolution and innate differences in gender, which is why they appear to be universal

Cultural bias:
- Berry (2002)
- refers to an imposed etic (assuming that Western ways of doing research are universal whereas they may be largely meaningless when imposed on other cultures)
- suggests that at least one member of the local population should be part of the research team to avoid cultural biases
- This is often not the case and means that the research we are using to study cultural differences in gender may be bias and do not actually offer a valid interpretation of cross cultural gender roles

Nature vs nurture:
- some research e.g. Buss and Monroe and Monroe suggests gender roles are biologically determines and the result of nature
- other studies e.g. Mead supports the idea that gender roles are culturally relative and vary form society to society- suggest the opposite that gender norms are transmitted within cultures through processes of observation and imitation ie nurture

Question 85

Define media

Answer 85

Communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available

Question 86

Briefly outline the relationship between media and gender roles

Answer 86

• The media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate
• Children are more likely to copy same sex models who engage in gender appropriate behaviour as this is more likely to be reinforced as suggested by SLT
• includes providing rigid stereotypes and self efficacy

Question 87

Describe media provoding rigid gender stereotypes

Answer 87

Bussy & Bandura (1999):
- suggest that the media do provide very clear gender stereotypes
- men are shown as independent and ambitious ‘advice givers’ whereas women are shown as dependent and unambitious ‘advice seekers’

Furnham & Farragher (2000):
- found that in TV adverts, men are more likely to be shown in autonomous, ambitious roles in professional contexts whereas women are shown in familial roles within domestic settings

McGhee & Frueh (1980):
- found that children who have more exposure to popular forms of media display more gender-stereotypical views in the behaviour and attitudes

all suggest the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes about male and female behaviour

Question 88

Describe the role of media in self-efficacy

Answer 88

• the media may give information to males and females about the behaviour that they are capable of carrying out- thus it promotes self-efficacy

Mitra et al (2019):
- analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes
- Programme- Adha-full- detective drama than ran for 78 episodes
- girls who watched the programme were more likely too see themselves as capable of working outside of the home than non-viewers
- suggests self-efficacy has changed as a result of media influence

Question 89

Describe the relationship between culture and media in gender roles

Answer 89

Cultural representations of gender are reinforced by the media through TV, books, films and billboards

Question 90

Strengths of the influence of media on gender roles

Answer 90

Cultivation theory:
- strength is that it has theoretical basis
- Cultivation theory- argues that the more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media wields the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality
- Bond and Drogos (2014)- found a positive correlation between time spent watching the reality TV programme ‘Jersey shore’ and permissive attitudes towards casual sex
- this effect was still found ti be true when researchers controlled for the influence of such factors as existing sexual; attitudes, parental attitudes, and religious beliefs
- suggests the media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and this affects gender behaviour

Practical applications:
- If gender behaviour is learnt in the media, then it means there is the potential to change gender stereotypes in society
- Changing television characters to be more gender neutral and exhibiting cross-gender behaviours could discourage gender stereotypes
- This uses the social learning theory by showing how influential role models are in the media, because by reducing gender-specific characters children would learn to be less dismissive of certain behaviours and more accepting of others

Supporting research 1:
- Pingree (1978)
- found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non- stereotypical roles
- This supports the role of the media in gender-stereotyping as it shows they are learning their gender
BUT:
- Pingree’s findings differed for pre-adolescent boys who displayed stronger stereotypes after exposure to the non- traditional models
- This backlash may occur because boys of this age want to take a view that is counter to the view held by adults
- It also reinforces Martin and Halverson’s findings that gender inconsistent messages are misremembered and have no effect
- This questions the simplistic explanation of how media can influence gender roles

Supporting research 2:
- Williams Notel study
- natural experiment and PPs in Notel (Canada) had not previously been exposed to television role models as they had no TV (although they may have been to magazines etc)
- Prior to the introduction of TV, children (especially girls) in Notel had weaker sex-typed views than children in Multitel (who had access to a number of American channels)
- suggests that exposure to media in Multitel had increased those children’s sex-typed views
- After the introduction of TV to Notel, the children’s sex-typed views increased, suggesting that exposure to role models in the media had affected their gender role development

Question 91

Weaknesses of the influence of media on gender roles

Answer 91

Can’t establish cause and effect:
- It is not possible to establish cause and effect as to whether the media influences the formation and maintenance of children’s gender role stereotypes
- It is hard to know whether the media causes the stereotypes or just reflects them (do children copy gender related behaviour that they see on TV or does TV show specific gender related behaviour because they think that is what people want to see)
- Most children are exposed to media so it is almost impossible to have a control group who are not exposed so it is hard to tell the extent to which media influences gender development

Conflicting research:
- Charlton’s St Helena study, which was also a natural experiment in which TV was introduced to a remote Atlantic island, found that the introduction of TV did not increase violence so it is reasonable to assume that media may not affect gender development either
- Therefore simply exposing children to stereotypes is not sufficient to change their behaviour and we must consider other influencing factors such as hormones on gender roles

Passive recipients:
- Durkin (1985)
- argues that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
- in fact, norms within the Childs family may be the bigger determinant on the Childs gender attitudes and behaviour
- if media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind, and if not, then such representations are likely to bee rejected
- suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences e.g. family

Question 92

Briefly outline gender dysphoria

Answer 92

• characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex-mismatch between their biological sex and the sex they ‘feel’ they are (their gender identity)
• People with GD want to live as members of the opposite sex so often dress and use mannerisms associated with the opposite gender
• recognised as a psychological disorder in the DSM-5

Question 93

Describe diagnosis of gender dysphoria

Answer 93

• must be a marked difference between the individual’s feelings about their gender and their biological gender
• this must last for more than 6 months
• In children, the desire to be of the other gender must be verbalised
• The condition must cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of their lives
• Sometimes there is a strong desire to be rid of one’s biological sex characteristics and gender reassignment surgery can be undertaken to change their external genitalia
• also asses the needs of the person e.g. how their feelings and behaviours have developed over time, and what support they ahem e.g. friends and family, and how they are coping with any difficulties of a possible mismatch

Question 94

Describe assessment of gender dysphoria

Answer 94

• A diagnosis of gender dysphoria can usually be made after an in-depth assessment carried out by two or more specialists
• This may require several sessions, carried out a few months apart, and may involve discussions with people the individual is close to, such as members of their family or partner

Question 95

Describe treatment for gendre dysphoria

Answer 95

• If the results of an assessment suggest that an individual has dysphoria, staff at the Gender Identity Clinic will work with them to come up with an individual treatment plan
• This will include any psychological support they may need
• aims to help reduce or remove the distressing feelings of a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity- can mean different things for different people
• For some people, it can mean dressing and living as their preferred gender
• For others, it can mean taking hormones or also having surgery to change their physical appearance
• Many trans people have treatment to change their body permanently, so they’re more consistent with their gender identity, and the vast majority are satisfied with the eventual results

Question 96

Outline the occurrence of gender dysphoria in society

Answer 96

• It’s not known exactly how many people experience gender dysphoria, because many people with the condition never seek help
• A survey of 10,000 people undertaken in 2012 by the Equality and Human Rights Commission found that 1% of the population surveyed was gender variant, to some extent
• While gender dysphoria appears to be rare, the number of people being diagnosed with the condition is increasing, due to growing public awareness
• However, many people with gender dysphoria still face prejudice and misunderstanding

Question 97

Dedine gender dysphoria and gender queer

Answer 97

• gender dysphoria – discomfort or distress caused by a mismatch between a person’s gender identity and their biological sex assigned at birth
• genderqueer – an umbrella term used to describe gender identities other than man and woman – for example, those who are both man and woman, or neither man nor woman, or moving between genders

Question 98

What is gender dysphoria NOT related to

Answer 98

sexual orientation- people with the condition may identify as any sexuality, and this may change with treatment

Question 99

Name different explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 99

• biological- brain sex theory, genetic factors
• social- cognitive explanation, psychoanalytic theory, social constructionism

Question 100

Outline the brains sex theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 100

• suggests that GD is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex
• Particular attention has been focused on the areas of the brain that are dimorphic (different in males and females)
• BST- the Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis- involved in emotional responses and in make sexual behaviour in rats- area is larger in men than females
• suggested that people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with rather than that of their biological sex

Question 101

Outline research into the brain sex theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 101

Zhou wt al (1995):
- studied the ‘bed nucleus of the stria terminalis’ (BSTc), which is about 40% larger in males than
females
- Post-mortem studies of 6 male- female transgender individuals showed that the BSTc was of similar size to a female brain rather than a male brain

Kuijper et al (2000):
- looked at the same 6 brains but focussing on neurone quantity rather than volume
- found that they showed an average BSTc neuron number in the female range rather than the male range, suggesting that these male-female transgender brains were more similar to female brains than male brains

Question 102

What is an issue with the research into the brain sex theory of gender dysphoria

Answer 102

issues with cause and effect:
- at end of life so neuroplasticity may have affected
- post mortem so hormone treatments may have altered brain structures

Question 103

Describe genetic factors in gender dysphoria

Answer 103

Hare et al (2009):
- looked at the DNA of 112 MtF transgender individuals and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a ‘normal sample’
- The effect of this abnormality is reduced action of testosterone, which could affect gender development in the womb

Haylens et al:
- compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twin sets where one of the pair was diagnosed with GD
- found that 9 (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for GD whereas none of the DZs were, thus suggesting a genetic link

Question 104

Strengths of biological explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 104

Supporting research:
- Rametti et al (2011)
- found that the brains of FtM transgender individuals have a more similar pattern of white matter (has regional differences in proportion in M/F brains) prior to starting transgender hormone therapy to individuals who share their gender identity (males) than to those who share their biological sex (females)
- supports a biological explanation for GD as it shows that neural differences may cause GD

Supporting research 2:
-Coolidge et al (2002)
- assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) using the clinical diagnosis in DSM-4
- The prevalence of GD was 2.3% and 62% of these cases were accounted for by genetic variance
- suggests a strong heritable component to GD and support for the biological explanation

Reducing stigma:
- Research into GD has social consequences for individuals represented by the research
- If a biological cause is identified, this may help other people to be more accepting about the needs of individual as it is not their fault (not free will), it is simply in their biology (determinism)
- This may reduce discrimination in society and lead to more support for those with GD
BUT) other my object to the label of mental disorder being applied to gender dysphoria- risks stigmatising those subject to it as characterised as ‘ill’ or ‘sick’ rather than just different

Question 105

Weaknesses of biological explanations of gender dysphoria

Answer 105

Difficulties drawing conclusions:
- Twin studies are inconclusive
- Evidence suggests that GD may be partly genetic but it is difficult to separate nature from nurture unless you use MZ twins who are reared apart
- This is hard to do in any twin study but for a rare condition like GD, the sample size is small anyway so finding MZ twins reared apart would be almost impossible
- This limits the extent to which generalisations about the genetic cause of GD can be made

Unable to establish cause and effect/ contradictory research:
- Hulshoff Pol et al (2006)
- found using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment that transgender hormone therapy did affect the size of the BSTc so observed differences in this size may be due to hormone therapy, rather than being the cause of GD
- As the size of the BSTc is only measured after GD develops we cannot be sure whether there are any differences before hormone therapy

Reductionist:
- The biological explanation for GD is reductionist as it reduces the complex behaviour of GD down to the level of biology alone (such as genetics or +/- exposure to androgens in the womb) as responsible for GD
- This fails to consider other explanations such as social-psychological explanations, which suggest that GD is due to extreme separation anxiety prior to the establishment of gender identity or an extension of gender schema theory
- It is therefore unlikely that the biological explanation alone is sufficient for GD

Question 106

Outline the psychoanalytic theory if gender dysphoria

Answer 106

Ovesey & Person (1973):
- argue that GD in males is caused by the child
experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established
- The child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion
with the mother to relieve the anxiety and remove the danger of separation and as such adopts the mother’s gender identity

Question 107

Outline cognitive explanations of gender dysphoria:

Answer 107

Liben & Bigler (2002):
- proposed an extension of gender schema theory
- suggest a dual pathway
- The first pathway acknowledges the development of gender- appropriate attitudes and behaviour as suggested by Martin & Halverson
- the second personal pathway describes how the individual’s personal interests may become more dominant than his or her activity
- e.g. a boy who enjoys playing with dolls may develop a non sex-typed schema and in most people this may lead to androgynous behaviour and a more flexible attitude to gender but in a small number of people, it may lead to GD

Question 108

Outline social constructionism

Answer 108

• argues that gender identity doesn’t reflect underlying biological differences between people and instead these concepts are ‘invented’ by societies
• for individuals who experience gender dysphoria, the gender ‘confusion’ arises because society forces people to be wither a man or a woman- they must ‘pick a side’ and act accordingly
• from this perspective, GD is not a pathological condition (as described within the DSM) but a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two particular parts

Question 109

Describe research into social constructionism

Answer 109

McClintock (2015):
- cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition (5-alpha-reductase deficiency) in the Sambia of new Guinea
- this causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth because they have labia and a clitoris
- at puberty their genital;s change because of the large increase in testosterone- testes descend and the clitoris enlarges into a penis
- this genetic variation is common among the Sambia, and it was routinely accepted that some popped are men, some people are women, and others as kwolu-aatmwol (females then males)
- since this culture has had contact with other cultures, however, kwolu-aatmwol are now judged as having a pathological form of GD

Question 110

Strengths of social-psychologcial explanations of GD

Answer 110

Supportive research 1:
- Zucker et al (1996)
- studied 115 boys with concerns about their gender identity
- found that 64% were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder
- suggests that some kind of disordered attachment to a mother is a factor in GD in males
- therefore points to a psychological explanation

Supportive research 2:
- Stoller (1973)
- interviewed GD males
- found they displayed close mother-son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long term
- suggests that close mother-son relationships may lead to GD

Practical applications:
- If GD is caused by social psychological factors, then it suggests that it is not predetermined at birth
- Therefore parents can receive education and guidance on how to reduce the effects of separation anxiety should a separation occur in early childhood
- This could reduce the amount of children who go on to develop GD, therefore reducing the distress it causes

Support for social constructionism:
- not all cultures have 2 genders
- e.g. fa’afafine of the Samoa are biological males who adopt the traditional gender role of women and are known for their hard work in a domestic context and dedication to the family- may have relationships with non fa’afafine men, however, not considered gay as no such label exists in Samoa
- this is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female
- the fact that an increasing number of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests cultural understanding is only now beginning to ‘catch up’ with the lived experience of many
- suggests that GD is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact

Question 111

Weaknesses of social-psychological explanations of GD

Answer 111

Descriptive not explanatory:
- The cognitive explanation for atypical gender development does not explain why some boys who enjoy playing with dolls have a flexible attitude to gender and others develop GD
- It explains that this happens, but there must be a reason as to why not all children who have a flexible gender identity
- This reason may be biological and therefore it is insufficient to only consider cognitive factors as an explanation for GD

Gender bias:
- The psychoanalytic theory and the studies by Ovesey & Person and Stoller do not explain GD in females so it only applies to male transgender individuals
- This is therefore androcentric and the reasons as to why females develop GD may differ
- This is different to the biological explanation which applies equally to males and females

Lack of scientific rigour:
- It is very difficult to test separation anxiety in childhood (as proposed by Ovesey & Person) as it occurs at an unconscious level so even individuals who were subject to these fantasies would not be aware of them
- This means it not an observable and measureable construct
- This questions the validity of the explanation as any research supporting it is likely to be subjective

Contradictory research:
- Rekers (1986)
- found GD in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother
- suggests the psychoanalytic theory doesn’t provide a comprehensive account of GD