issues and debates Flashcards
gender bias - key terms (5)
gender bias universality alpha bias beta bias androcentrism
universality
universality - any underlying characteristics of humans what are capable of being applied to all, despite differences in experiences/upbringing
gender bias
gender bias is when psychological research doesn’t accurately represent the experience or behaviour of both genders
alpha bias
alpha bias - psychological differences that suggest there are real and enduring differences between men and women.
This difference may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, usually females
beta bias
beta bias - theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes
- females may not be included in research and assumed that both genders would have the same response
androcentrism
androcentrism - male centred, ‘normal’ behaviour judged according to a male standard - meaning that female behaviour may be judged as ‘abnormal’ in comparison or being misunderstood
can be caused by beta bias
an example of alpha bias
e.g Freud;s penis envy - induces negative assumptions of females (whilst sociobiological theory argues male sexuality is genetic and normal
example of androcentrism
‘PMS’ - trivialises and labels female aggression as merely hormones/a disorder
masculine aggression seen as a reasonable response to environmental stimuli
gender bias A03: misleading assumptions
P: Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
E: Tavris (1993) refers to this in their quote ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’.
E: gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women, for example, the statistic that females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression.
L: As a result the external validity of gender bias is increased because it has implications for the real world.
gender bias A03: sexism in research
P: A lack of women at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.
E: Male researchers are more likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely to appear in journal
E: Also, laboratory experiments may further disadvantage women as they are placed in an uneven relationship with a (usually male) researcher who has the power to label them unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete tasks (Nicolson, 1995).
L: This means that psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research - internal validity of alpha bias is increased.
gender bias A03: reflexivity
P: Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work.
E: Rather than seeing such bias as a problem that may threaten the objective status of their work, they embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general.
E: For instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their reading of events
L: Such reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future and consequently the internal validity of gender bias is increased.
gender bias A03: points
- reflexivity
- sexism in the research process
- misleading assumptions
cultural bias: key points (5)
cultural bias emic constructs etic constructs ethnocentrism cultural relativism
cultural bias
refers to the tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture
- often westernised, white-american males
Ethnocentrism
Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture. May lead to prejudice, or viewing behaviours that don’t conform to the Western standard as ‘abnormal’ e.g Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
Cultural Relativism
The idea that norms and values, as well as ethics and moral standards, can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.
Etic approach
looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal (eg- Ainsworth).
emic approach
functions from within/inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
emic approach
functions from within/inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture
What did Berry say about etic and emic approaches? (2)
- Berry distinguished between etic and emic approaches in the study of human behaviour
- argues psychology has often been guilty of imposing an etic approach, arguing theories, models etc are universal when they actually came about through emic research within a single culture.
A03 for cultural bias: limiting psychological knowledge
Cultural bias has infiltrated a lot of past psychological research, meaning our knowledge may be limited
Even more recent studies, e.g Schaffer and Emerson attachment studies
Counteract: Elkman - suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions (such as happiness or disgust) are the same all over the human and animal world.
cultural bias A03: conducting research elsewhere
P: When conducting research in Western culture the participants familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed.
E: However, the same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that do not have the same historical experience or research.
E: For this reason, demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population (Bond and Smith, 1996) and this may have an adverse affect on the validity of research.
L: Therefore, there is cultural bias in psychological research and therefore the internal validity is increased.
cultural bias A03: challenging prejudice
P: one of the benefits of cross-cultural research is that it may challenge our typically individualist ways of thinking and viewing the world
E: challenging ‘scientific racism’ - promote greater sensitivity to individual difference and cultural relativism
- attachment studies
E +L: psychologists are more likely to draw conclusions that have higher validity if they include recognition of various cultures
–> expensive, many laws don’t require this research according to biological approaches
cultural bias A03: points
- conducting research elsewhere
- challenging prejudice
- limiting psychological field
Free will
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors.
- basis of the humanistic approach
Determinism
The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces, rather than an individual’s will to do something.
Hard determinism
Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control.
- compatible with scientific psychological perspectives
Soft determinism
All events, including human behaviour, have causes, but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of pressure.
- Although scientists investigate the forces acting upon us, this does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices.
Biological determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences (genetic, hormonal, evolutionary) that we cannot control.
- neurological and biological processes outside our conscious control e.g testosterone + aggression
Environmental determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward and punishment) that we cannot control.
- Skinner free will is an ‘illusion’ - we may think we act independently but we are shaped by our environment (parents, teachers etc)
Psychic determinism
The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
- Freud: emphasis on unconscious drives, human behaviour being determined by internal conflicts from our childhood
5 types of determinism
Hard determinism Soft determinism Biological determinism Environmental determinism Psychic determinism
freewill vs determinism A03: aims of science
P: Determinism is consistent with the aims of science.
E: The experience of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, where sufferers experience a total loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour, casts doubt on the concept of free will.
E: Therefore, at least in terms of mental illness behaviour would appear to be determined.
L: Consequently, the internal validity of the concept of determinism is increased.
–> is this always true? people have very different experiences? if it was deterministic, would we have the ability to recover?
freewill vs determinism A03: legality
P: may implicate the legal systems
E: determinism may act as an ‘excuse’ for inexcusable behavior e.g aggression/domestic abuse
E: allows immoral behavior, and determinism is also inconsistent with the legal system in the fact that people are usually held morally accountable for their behaviour - suggests free will
L: psychology should advance the world, not impair, thus the external validity is decreased
freewill vs determinism A03: interactionism
P: An interactionist position may provide us with the best compromise in the free-will determinism debate.
E: Those approaches in psychology that have a cognitive element, such as SLT, tend to adopt a soft determinist position.
E: For instance, Bandura argued that although environmental factors in learning are key, we are free to choose who or what to attend to and when to perform certain behaviours.
L: Therefore, since an interactionist approach combines free will and determinism, the internal validity of both is increased.
–> does this expose that this approach is too reductionist and inapplicable to real-life?
freewill vs determinism A03: points
interactionism
legality
scientific aims
