is sociology a sciene

Question 1

what do positivist say

Answer 1

1. objective facts about social world in statistics. discovered directly by our senses - see
2. facts not influenced by personal beliefs
3. look for correlations to find causal relationships= relation b/w 2 phenomenon causing other to take place
4. possible to uncover the laws of human behaviour i
5. scientific, =study what you observe. I unscientific to study people’s emotions.
6. possible to classify social world in objective way= possible to count observable social facts n get statistics
7. laws of human behaviour can be found by collection of objective facts of social world in stats form
8. use inductive approach = collect data -> observation -> pattern -> hypothesis ->theory -> tested against others
9. subject matter of society similar to natural sciences ; humans react to external forces
   human behaviour caused n predictable

Question 2

what does durkheim say

positivist

Answer 2

1. social facts be considered =make people behave in ways
2. human behaviour can be explained with xternal stimuli (things happen to us) than internal (mind
3. society directed by collective beliefs, values n laws - by social facts

• used quantitative, scientific methods
• –used stats on suicide oto support claim that unobservable forces shaped human behaviour
• –essential to achieve right amount of integration n regulation

Question 3

what is durkheim study of sucidie

Answer 3

1. wanted to show suicide not explained fully by psychologists
2. personal reasons not account for suicide rate e.g no relation b/w insanity n suicide rate
3. suicide available stats = social facts to find causes n make correlations n find patterns to reveal causual relationship
   4.suicide rates higher in protestant countries than catholic,
   jews - lower suicide rate than roman cath
   married people more suicide rate, war reduce suicide
4. religion more important than education - jews had low suicide rate with high education level

Question 4

durkheim study of suicide - types of suicide & result

Answer 4

1. egoistic suicide - from being insufficiently integrated into social groups n society they belonged
   - –catholic religion integrated member more strongly into religious community
   - –protestant church encouraged people to develop own interpretation of religion = less belong to community n integrated circj
   - –unmarried n childless less integrated into family
2. anomic suicide = society not regulate individual enough = trad norms n values disrupted by social change = uncertainty in behaviour guidelines = anomie
   - –suicide rise during economic depression n prosperity
   - –rising salries n living standards = higher suicide rates —specialized division of labour = societies less integrated
3. altruistic suicide = well integrated into society - sacrificed own life out of sense of duty to others
   - – Hindu widows kill self at husband funeral
4. fatalistic suicide = society restricted person too much- suicide of person with future blocked n passion oppressed. excess regulation

Question 5

positivist Reponses to durkheim

halbwachs

gibbs + martin

Answer 5

1. Halbwachs = use more recent suicide statistics n new methods of statistical analysis
   - —overestimated importance of religion in suicide rate
2. Gibbs + martin = agree suicide should be studied with scientific methods n stats data
   - –he used concepts that cant be observed or measured = not follow positivist methods
   - –fail to define ‘integration’ in measurable way
   - –cant test theory that lack integration

Question 6

what does comte say about positivism

Answer 6

1. ‘Age of Reason’ believed society could be studied w objective & rational eye. through formal observations.
2. ‘positivist philosophy’ - good social science, like sociology, should use hypotheses to guide our study
   3 three stages of progress in our understanding of world:
3. Theological stage – early human society (events caused by actions of gods)
4. Metaphysical stage – focus shifts from the divine (such as God) to the human (abstract forces)
5. Scientific stage – final stage science provides explanations - scientific laws

Question 7

comte positivism

Answer 7

1. scientific study of scoiety should be confined to collecting info about phenomena to be objectively observed n classified
2. should not be concerned with internal meanings, motives, feelings n emotions= only in consciousness- cant be observed or measured
3. social phenomena like physical phenomena copying the methods of natural sciences.

Question 8

what does popper say

falsification

Answer 8

1. reject inductive approach = whatever study will be informed by initial theory
2. use deductive approach = theory -> hypothesis -> observation -> confirmation
3. falsify it to prove it wrong
4. never possible to verify theory - instead discover law of human behaviour
5. always at some point, evidence/examples will not fit theory n prove theory untrue
   e. g all swans white confirmed by observations but misleading if observer not been to AUS with black swans
6. scientific knowledge never be taken final unconvertible truth - always disproved

Question 9

popper falsification theory

Answer 9

1. start with hypothesis or statement to deduce predictions aout future
   e. g Newton’s Law of graity allow hypotheses made about movement of bodies of mass - used to make prediction against future events
2. dont matter how theory originates - doesnt have to come from prior observation or analysis
3. not possible to produce laws thats true all time
4. scientist need to constantly find evidence to disprove or falsify theories

Question 10

laboratory experiment -

Answer 10

1. lab allow precise predictions - controlled env so researcher can manipulate variables = calculate effects n remove other factors
2. e.g experiment of light on plant growths t
   - –control group plants expose to light n experiment group more/less light than them = result observed, measured n quantified
3. allow to isolate variable than observed plants in wild
4. allow replication- reproduce conditions for same results

Popper; allow precision n repeated testing prediction but not use laboratory experiments;

1. unnatural situations - people under eye knowing= affect behaviour n ruin result validity
2. impractical to do in lab, cant fit all community

Question 11

field experiments

Answer 11

-e.g rown n gay of fake job application by letter n phone from diff ethnic group - non white people less likely to lead to job interview

• e.g ask direction by actor - appearance of actor changed from businessman to labourer = public more helpful to businessman costume
• – cant control variables as closely - not same time or place
• – hawthorne effect = reduce knowledge of people knowing experiment = ethical risks with no consent
• less gov willing to surrender authroity to researcher to test theories n hypothesis

Question 12

interpretivist view

Answer 12

1. scientific method useful only to natural phenomena where no quesion of consciousness or reflexivity
2. scientific method cant be used to understand social action
3. study of human society must go beyond empirical n objective evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, values (unobservable)
   require interpretation.
   4.Iresearch cant establish social facts,
   cant be understood by stats, figures, facts
4. sociology is interpretation of social action = only understood by interpret meanings n motives
5. people actively construct own social reality - not imposed by external factors = dont react automatically but interpret meaning before responding .
   e.g motorist see red light not stop in response - attach meaning to stimulus before acting = light could be decoration or brothel
   7, explain human behaviour by understanding subjective states

Question 13

max weber - interpretivism
proestant ethic
-

Answer 13

• –>relationship b/w rise of Protestantism n development of western industrial capitalism
• –>ascetic calvinist Protestantism took over development of capitalism
• –>capitalism develop where religion influential
• –>calvinist protestantism believe elect = chosen to go heaven by god by how they behaved, carry duties
• –>encourage abstinence from pleasures n self discipline, worked hard in jobs to make money = success
• –>protestant attacked time waster, lazy, idle, gossip, sexual pleasures (sex for baby n after married)
• –>spirit of capitalism = set of ideas,ethics,values = way of life with ethics, duties, obligations n make money
• –>making money became religious n business ethic
• –> protestantism encouraged standardization & specializeddivison of labour
• —> limitts on consumption of wealth= increase more for saving n investments businesses
• –>religion dont expect them to test beliefs scientifically or expect religious beliefs to weigh on cost & benefits of joining religious group
• –> help build capitalist society
• –> formal rationality = best means to achieve given end in stats form
• –> hard for religious follower to keep faith = secularisation

Question 14

interpretivist

Answer 14

• – explain social action need understanding of meanings n motives of human behaviour = interpret meanings given to action
• – achieve by verstehen - imagine self in position/ empathetic understanding of behaviour

Question 15

max weber evaluation

Answer 15

1. Somart = calvinism was against greed n money pursuit
   - –> doctrine not meant to produce rational pursuit of profit = unintentional consequences
2. Calvinist countries like switz, hungary but not among first capitalist countries
   - –> Marshall; scotland had capitalist mentality but held back by lack of labour & capital investment
3. question if religious beliefs of calvinist led to people being business people
   - –>non calvinist devoted themselves as business= excluded from holding office n joining profession like jews
4. Marxist = early capitalism came before n determined Protestantism = protestantism was ideology capitalists used to legitimate position
   - –> question if calvinism or capitalism came first
   - –> Weber; pre capitalist money making ventures not rational organized for profits

Question 16

what is kuhn view - paradigms and scientific revolution

Answer 16

• –> see scientists as objective &neutral, & working together to refine scientific knowledge = evolving gradually, new evidence helps to refine &develop existing theories.
• –> argue evolution of scientific knowledge is limited by ‘paradigms’. = basic world-view give framework for thinking of world; assumptions of reality =limit questions scientists ask in research.
• –> scientists build their careers working within the dominant paradigm, & ignore evidence that dont fit with l framework
• –> those who ask questions outside of ‘dominant paradigm’ = marginalised, not taken seriously.
• –> ‘rogue scientists’ look world differently work in alternative research, with enough evidence builds up = contradicts existing paradigms, a ‘paradigm shift’ happens = i old paradigms are rejected, new dominant paradigm comes into force.

Question 17

kuhn view

Answer 17

• –> sociology not mature, mainstream science, = hasn’t found a unifying paradigm. not share aset of assumptions about world /how to do research
• –> radical science” challenges assumptions n possible to be paradigm shift, n radical science become new mainstream.
• –> series of ‘revolutions’ to paragim shift & new ‘paradigms’ to replace old ‘paradigms’’ accepted.
• –> science not be seen as characterised by consensus – many competing paradigms
• –> current paradigms not accepted forever n true
• –> Normal science = research based on past scientific achievements, as foundation further practice., gradual build up of evidence not fit accepted paradigm

e. g climate change = human activity impacting first treated sceptically but now be accepted (Sutton) like burning fossilfuels
- –> belief of continents moving / drift over earth surface seen ridiculous for many years = rejected= hard to investigate them = marginalised scientist

Question 18

evaluation of kuhn

Answer 18

-

Question 19

positivistic evaluation

Answer 19

-

Question 20

Realism views

sayers

Answer 20

• –> closed systems,; physics chemistry, - only limited variables interacting, controlled, possible to carry out laboratory experiments & precise predictions
• –> open system; meteorology operate = cannot control all variables. = unpredictability.
• —> Meteorology still scientific – models based on observation = predict w certainty when weather events happen, & models being refined.
• –> open systems sciences trying to find ‘underlying structures’ - not directly observed, like magnetic fields, interfere with weather patterns.
• –> can be scientific ; meteorology is scientific, but not scientific in the way physics or chemistry can be scientific:
• —> Quantitative sociology, e.g reveal hidden structures ( class structure), a& make predictions about what % people in lower class background will fail,

Question 21

symbolic interactionism

Answer 21

• –> dont reject attempt to establish casual relationship
• —> believe stats dont give insight into behaviour
• –> behaviour governed by internal processes - people interpret world around n give meaning
• —> people have self concept/image built up, reinforced, modified during interaction with others = have image of what sort person they are n tend to act with image
• —> response of others make it hard for them to sustain self concept = changing n behaviour will also change
• —> labelling as deviant or educational success/failures produce self fulfilling prophecy

Question 22

symbolic interactionist blumer

Answer 22

• –> sociologist conduct research only superficial familiarity with area of life
• –> result = impose definitions on social world with little regard for relevance to world
• –> not view social reality from actor’s view but force into predefined categories n concepts = small chance of getting true social reality
• —> industrialization cause replacement of extended families with nuclear
• —> meaning n interpretations to industrialization n family essential before relationship created b/w 2 factors
• —> sociologist must immerse self into area of life than fit data into predefined categories = learn actor’s view of social reality

Question 23

interpretive view oof suicide

douglas

Answer 23

—-> criticise use of states to study suicide
—> decision if sudden death is suicide made by coroner n influenced by other people like family n friends
—-> sysematic bias can enter in reaching decision
—-> e.g person integrated into social group - friends/family likely to deny suicide possibility to themselves n coroner = feel responsibility = cover up suicide
—-> see stats as negotiation between diff parties
distortion of stats systematic
—> bad to treat a;; suicide as same type of act w/o investigating meaning attached to act of victims
—> diff cultures suicide have diff meanings e.g businessman in modern industrial society suicide = business failed in contrast to elderly eskimo who kill himself for benefit of society
—-> needs to discover meanings, interview those victim’s close relations n analyse secondary sources from victim
—-> common suicide in western industrial society = transform soul to get to heaven /
transform of self = get others tothink of them differently /
suicide as achieving fellow feeling for sympathy
suicide to get revenge make them feel guity

Question 24

feminist approaches methods

Answer 24

1. attack on malestream research = critique previous male dominated mainstream research
2. distinctive feminist research methods = more conventional scientific methods men use that not good to understand social reality
3. feminism reveal epistemology/theory/knowledge

Question 25

feminist methodology

wallace & abbott

Answer 25

• –attack on malestream research = research for men, by men, about men
• —> sociology concerned w research on men
• —> research findings based on all male samples generalized to whole population
• —> areas n issues of conern to women mostly overlooked/ seen as unimportant
• –> women included - distorted or seist way
• –> sex n gender almost never important variables

e.g smart = male crime n delinquency
-ignored women criminals- merton, cohen, ohlin
smale scientists being sexist 0 parsons, biology

Question 26

femiinist method

oakley

Answer 26

• –>feminist way of doing interviews thats better
• –>discover main features of masculine approach
• paradigm of proper interview = objective, detachment, science important = avoid being too involved, be passive n not answer questions
• –> women wanted to ask her questions about research & requests for info about childbirth/childcare or anxious about it = oakley answered them honestly as it was hard them n give them back
• –> wanted women to be collaborative n friends = develop relationship - intimate n non-hierarchal
• —> oakley asked permission to record interview & use info
• —> gave help with childcare or housework & talked of her own experiences of childbirth with women interested & gave offer advice
• —> improved quality of research & get closer to subjective view of women studied
• —> women influenced - making them reflect on experiences = reduce anxiety & reassured

Question 27

post modernism view

lyotard

Answer 27

• –>metanarratives of emancipation, self fulfilment & social progress= undermined by postmodernism
• –>postmodern era;
  1. search for truth abandoned as sign/symbol denotative language games disfavoured
• – knowledge fragments into multiple diff language games specific to certain areas of science or social life
• – diversity today = people lose faith in search for 1 great truth
  2. sign/symbol denotative language games replaced by technical language games - statements not judged if true but by if useful & efficient or not.
• – ultimate ends of human activity to which things can be achieved
  e. g university researchers ask what use something than if its true = research produce knowledge favourable

—> technology pm = miniaturization & commercialization of machines
computer tech = force of production
—> knowledge that cant be translated in to form usabe by computer = lost or disregarded
— economic activity around info tech
—social life monitored n controlled my machines n control over knowledge = major source of power
—future wars about control of knowledge

• –> pm society based on production & ecchange of knowledge to be sold,
• –> lang games about if efficient & saleable than if they serve human purpose/goal
• –> offer tolerance & creative diversity, people not corrupted by metanarrative doctrinaire.

Question 28

post modernism

Answer 28

—> scientific paradigm is meta-narrative that brings nothing& cannot help to improve it = more value than other perspective.
e,g society world fragmented , many perspectives on everything = truth become relative.
—> paradigm shift over time & discipline (science and sociology) does not matter, they are just meta-narratives.
—> science should not be allowed a monopoly of truth e.g aim to be scientific =suggesting being scientific is the best thing & should be strived for. but its 1 version of the truth
e,g now in a scientific risk society, aware of greater risks to our health from pollution and nuclear war =science . Problems like degrading environment and getting MRSA or other super drug resistant bugs in us were not concerns 100 years ago,
—>risks created in society are greater now because of science.

Question 29

interpretivist view

Answer 29

• –> meanings n self concepts shape n influence behaviour; people attach meaning to world around n have motives to act
• –> reality is social reality is different to natural reality – we need to understand meanings. social action
• –> verstehen to translated as observational understanding + understand meaning of motives
• –> reject natural science method for social action study = natural science deal with matter & matter has no consciousness = behaviour is reaction to external stimuli but people have consciousness - interpet & experience world in meanings = construct own reality
• –> people dont react automatically to external stimuli

Question 30

criticism of weber

Answer 30

—> treat all social forces n pressures like it can be explained to actions & purposes of isolated people

Question 31

criticism of douglas

Answer 31

—> fail to recognize value of durkheim’s work
—> contradicts himself; imply suicide stats cant be reliable- judgement if death is suicide
but also suggest causes of suicide can be found

Question 32

phenomenologist view

atkinson

Answer 32

• –>coroners have commonsense theory of suicide - if info of deceased fits theory= likely categorized death as suicide;
  1. if suicide notes or threats left
  2. mode of dying judged to indicate suicide - road deaths rarely suicide
  3. location n circumstances of death judged e.g gassing if window doors blocked = suicide, deserted area
  4. consider biography of deceased - mental state n social situation

—> coroners have explanation of causes of crime
n if info of background fit explanations = verdict likely
—> analyse features of deaths n biographies
—interpretation on event

Question 33

criticism of phenomenology

hindess

Answer 33

• –> if suicide stats critized as bein no more than interpretations of coroners then atkinson critizied being no more than interpretation of sociologists
• –> no way to check validity of how coroners reach decisions

Question 34

criticism of postmodernism

alvesson

Answer 34

• –> language constructs phenomena - experience reality is shaped by lang you use to describe it
• –> interviews & notes dont reflect underrlyingreality but create reality they claimto describe
• –> to improve interview by refine techniques, be sensitive to way relationship develop
• –> reflexive pragmatism = produce best data without provide objective picture of reality
• –> efforts to see subject from diff angle & avoid privileging favoured one
• –reflexive researcher not able to overcome problem with data = no basis for pragmatic acceptance of some data

Question 35

critical social research

harvey

Answer 35

• –> knowledge is process to understand social world- never ending = ever finished as world constantly changing
• – knowledge an be seperate from values n see beneath surface
• – society seems misleading = things taken for granted to find true values underlying them
• –> want to reveal oppressive structure - to be changed

1. abstract concepts n ideology like housework = examine how concepts relate to wider social relationships = see beneath surface of social reality
   e. g housework is work relationship then tasks simply
   - – overcome dominant ideology that distort reality e.g patriarchal/racial beliefs = mask reality
   e. g marxist - wage labour as free & fair exchange but hides material benefits of employer as owner of means of production
2. concepts n beliefs relate to society to totality = view phenomena interrelated n as a whole
   — societies have structures that constraint & limit people action & make actions possible
   e,g wc cant set up own business but possible to make profits
   — examine historical context changes over time to understand in a time point = wc learn how economy & labour market changed
3. deconstruction of areas in life to find essence = important concept to unlock deconstructive process - find relationships embedded in structure
   e. g essence of capitalism = commodity form & housework is work relationship
   - –reconceptualization = familiar aspects of social life in unfamiliar ways find essences
   - – deconstruction; development & testing hypothesis & collect empirical data
   e. g willis wc lads = rebellion at school prepare for alienation at jobs in future - contribute to maintaining their own oppression
4. praxis = practical reflective activity what changes the world, improve world
   - – interested if potential for oppessed groups to come together to change their situation
   - – groups understand situation = likely to resist, challenge structures oppressing them

Question 36

criticism of critical social research

hammersley

Answer 36

1. problems finding sources of oppression
   - – not clear how to distinguish oppressor from non oppressor as people can be both
   - – if oppressed researcher it be hard to do method
2. diff views on what group needs n interests
   - – diff views n dimensions of oppression = subjective judgements
3. assume theres single set of values everyone agree on
   - –interest s of diff oppressed groups may clash
   e. g religious minority oppressed due to beliefs but also patriarchal & opress women = unclear what to focus on
4. try to make their argument true by getting oppressed groups to agree or show results success to combat oppression
   - – group not able to evaluate truth of theories = suffer false consciousness
   - – cant assume correct theory will produce social changes to overcome oppression

Question 37

phenomenology

cicourel

Answer 37

• –> reject producing casual explanation of human behaviour= dont believe objectively measure & classify world
• –> make sense of world by meanings n classifications = make up social reality & no objective reality
• –> juvenile justice police offers = problem of classifying behaviour of juneiles into cateogries of; delinquent & non-delinquent
• –> not objective = based on stereotypes of typical delinquent held by officials
• —> data on convictions for acts = social product based on assumption who created stats

—> stats products rflect meanings of those who created them
—> sociologist to understand meanings from which social reality is constructed
—> problem of classification is universal & not unique to certain data
all make decisions to classify by social processes
—> no hierarchy or superiority of diff systems of classification = pointless to use data upon interpretations to find relationships
—> stats to conclude that WC cause crimes acts not justified = figures only show how crie defined & classified then what actions carried out

Question 38

realism

Answer 38

• –> argue that only understand conflict between workers n owners by understanding class structure or women experience with patriarchy
• –> physical science n social science both have aim of uncovering underlying strictures & processes to make things happen