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IR MIDTERM 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Feminist Critique

What is the Liberal Stance on The Sexual Economy of US military bases?

A

The Sexual Economy of US military bases
* Prosititution arranged informally by US military commander, local government officials, and “businessmen” (foten with organized crime connections) around US military bases. Ignored as an issue until the 1930s.

“Comfort Women” –Sexual Slavery and the Imperial Japanese Army during WWII –long neglected in Korea until the 1990s
* Beginning in 1990s uncovering of the issue, taking to the victims/survivors and confronting the issue of sexual violence
* Role of Civil Society Activists raising awareness of the issue
–>Raise awareness and activate change

Highlighting Sexual Violence in War– The International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
* During teh Bosnian War Serb leader– Radko Lladic and Radovan Karadzic– allowed systematic rape to intimidate the Bosniak and Croat populations
* Charged for the first time after the war in the 2000s –Karadzic faces charges in the Hague, Netherlands

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2
Q

What is the Radical Feminist Theory of IR

A

-J. Anne Ticknor (and Haywood Alker)
-The very language of IR is gendered
-Supports a particular view of politics based on an understanding of traditional gender roles

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3
Q

Retelling IR through Constrictivist Lenses

A

Retelling IR through Constructivist Lenses:
-After 1648 the unifying force of Christendom collapsed in Europe
-The Sovereign State acting on the basis of state interest takes over
-Hyper Realist view of international relations

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4
Q

18th-19th century transformation

A
  • Nationalism gradually displaces the aristocratic order
  • National interest– the interest of the people– becomes central
  • Reflects the class, race, and gendered understandings of European states at the time
  • Promote an IR liberal view of international relations
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5
Q

Liberalism challenged by alternate visions of social solidarity- Marxism & Fascism

A

Glorification of the state and the nation
-Visions of Mussolini, mobilized ppl

Socialist Class Solidarity and Mass Line
-Focused upon class

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6
Q

International Security

What is it that we want to defend? What is the Federent Object of Security?

A
  • State interest
  • The absence of threat?
  • Human lives in general?
  • Fundamental value?
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7
Q

International Security

What is the classical definition of International Security?

A

(More realist view)
* Historically– the interest of the Ruler
-Niccolo Machiavelli
* In modern times– the states as an institution which exercises control over a particular territory
* Struggle against other rulers and states

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8
Q

International Security

The absence of threats in the International System

A
  • Liberals believe that security is a collective good (Collective Security)
  • The idea behind the League of Nations
  • Multilateral Security institutions buttressed by interdependence dampens the threat of violence
  • Preserving that system is vital to achieving security
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9
Q

International Security

What is Human Security?

A
  • Many liberals and Constructivists (thick and thin) argue for a broader definition–Protecting human lives
  • This includes defining a broader range of threats
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10
Q

International Security

Many possible threats beyond the classical threat of interstate conflict

A
  • Environmental
  • Economic (development and protection from poverty)
  • Food (protection from hunger)
  • Personal security (protection of human rights from state and non-state violence)
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11
Q

Securitization

What is Securitization?

A

Secutitization=The creation of security sssues

Three types:
-Non-politicized
-Politicized
-Securitized

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12
Q

Securitization

What is Non-Politicized?

A
  • The state does not recognize the issue
  • The issue is not included in the public debate
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13
Q

Securitization

What is Politicized?

A
  • The issue is managed with the standard political system
  • It is “part” of public policy. Requiring governmental decision and resource allocations or more rarely, some form of communal governance.
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14
Q

Securitization

What is Securitized?

A
  • The issue is framed as a security question through an act of securitization
  • A securitizing actor articulates an already politicized issue as an existential threat to a referent object
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15
Q

Securitization

Example: Environmental Security

A
  • Global population has been growing for centuries
  • Concern over its implication dates back to the early 19th century
    -Thomas Robert Malthus
  • Population Growth leads to increased demand for scarce resources
  • Knock on effects of economic development
    -Evidence has accumulated for over 100 years of rising warming
    -Growing frequency of potentially climate related disasters:
    –Bangladesh Cyclone
    –Desertification Eastern Africa
    –Indian Ocean Tsunami
    –Pakistan Flood
  • Politicization: Since 1970s growing environmental movement
    -Attention towards climate change
    -Environmental movements
    -Green parties (gov parties growing over Europe)
  • Articulating the issue as a security issue
    Dixon - Prof at University of Toronto
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16
Q

Securitization

Example: Migration as a Security Threat

A
  • International migration has been increasing over the past half century
  • Approximately 10% of OECD countries now foreign born
    Series of high-profile migration crisis
  • Creates a range of security related fears
    -Threat to jobs
    -Crime
    -Terrorism
    -Values
  • Politicizing the issue from the Right
    -Current debates on immingration
  • Getting Political Representation
    -Political Party rises
    -Ex: Italy– next prime minister against immingration
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17
Q

Defining War

A
  • “Open and declared armed hostile conflict between states or nations”
  • “Any Conflict between rival groups by force of arms or other means,… recognized as a legal conflict” (Preston and Wise)
  • “An act of force to compel the enemy to do our will” (Clausewitz)
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18
Q

Defining War

Capturing the Essence of Warefare

A
  • Carl von Clausewitz (1790-1831)
    -At 13 joined in the first war against France (1792-1797)
    -1806- Captured a Jena when Napoleon Conquered Prussia
    -Joined the Russian army and fought against Napoleon at Borodino
  • Fought in the Napoleonic wars, later a military educator
  • Author of “On War” (Vom Kriege)
  • “War is the extension of politics by other means”
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19
Q

Defining War

The Towering Figure of the Time- Napoleon Bonaparte

A
  • The “God of War”
  • Victorious on the battlefield
  • Conquered most of Europe
  • An era of mass mobilization– La Grande Armee reached 400,000
  • Completely failed strategically
  • Napoleon crowns himself Emperor
  • An Era of “Total War” and mass mobilization
    Nationalism
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20
Q

Defining War

Lesson 1: The Passions of total war must be tamed

A
  • War is continuation of politics by other means
  • Never lose sight of the larger objective – war cannot be its own end
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21
Q

Defining War

Lesson 2: The Fog of War

A
  • War is inherently full of confusion and error – “friction”
  • Every plan falls apart with the first contact with the enemy
  • Careful preparation, training and flexibility is key to military success
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22
Q

Defining War

Lesson 3: Clausewitz’s Trinity

A
  • War involves every aspect of society: The key is finding the right balance between these different factors
    1-Government (politics, reason, intelligence)
    2-The People (hate, enmity, primal violence, passion)
    3-The Armed Forces (calculation game of change, odds, values)
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23
Q

Defining War

Lesson 4: Morale is crutial

A
  • Clausewitz – military force is material capabilities times the spiritual element
  • No military can succeed without the support of society and a viable strategy
    –>Example: The US and Vietnam:
    -Huge military apparatus, enormous economic resources
    -5000,000 troops at height
    -US loses the war on the home front
    -American Public opinion against mobilization
    -1975 Final ignominious defeat (US helicopters evacuate US embassy in saigon)
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24
Q

Defining War

War always Changes

A
  • Evolves in response to changes in technology, state and society
  • First half of 20th Century saw a return to “Total War”
  • The “Cold War” - Brinksmanship
  • Since 1945 most conflicts are internal
    -Level of violence is quite severe
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25
Q

Defining war

For + Waves of Internal War

A
  • Decolonization Process –India/Pakistan, Chinese civil war, Independence movements in South East Asia, the Middle East and Africa (1945-1965)
  • Cold War- proxy war- East versus West – Wietnam, Indonesia, Nigeria, Afganistan, Angola
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26
Q

What is Economy?

A

Economy- The way in which societies work together to meet their needs under conditions of scarcity

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27
Q

What is Political Economy?

A

Political Economy- The impact of the political system on the economy, and of the economy on politics

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28
Q

What is International Political Economy?

A

International Political Economy- Political economy on the international level

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29
Q

Trade

Multiple related issues

A
  • International Trade
  • International investment
  • Foreign direct investment (FDI)
  • Stocks and Bonds
  • International Regulations (How countries internationally agree on standards)
  • International Monetary Cooperation
  • Management of Economic Crises
  • Etc.
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30
Q

Trade

Ancient Origins of Trade

(The Silk Road)

A
  • Long distance trade across Eurasia
  • Towns and Guilds flourish
  • Trade proved resources for large European armies
  • Fall of Constantinople 1453
  • Spices (most important commodity)
    -Interruption of trade routes
    -War between Ottoman and Christian Countries
    -Major incentive for European explorers to move across the atlantic to find alternate routes
  • Leds the creation of colonial empires

**First Truly Global trade system - 16th Century
**

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31
Q

Trade

What is the Mercantilist State?

A
  • The Mercantilist Argument for Colonial Expansion
  • A European View
    -The more you export the more flow of money into country
    -Balance of Trade
  • Extract as much resources from system as possible (through taxing merchants)

Colonist Dislike mercantilism’s exploitation of the colonies:
* The Boston Tea Party - A protest against the Crown’s Taxes
* The intellectual Foundations of Free Trade

32
Q

Trade

Liberal History -The tirals and tribulations of the Free Market

A

Liberalism = Pro free market (Economic thinking–Neoliberalism)

33
Q

Trade

The Struggle against Protectionism

A
  • States should be involved in protecting society from the market
  • Rising Protectionist Pressures
34
Q

Trade/International regulation

The Smoot Hawley Tariff Action

A
  • Raid Tariffs on exports
    -Tariff =Tax

Economist wrote open letter to gov saying it was a bad idea:
* Said other countries will retaliate
* US gov ignored it
* Resulting with disastrous economic consequences:
-Other countries rose Tariffs
-World trade plummeted significantly
–>German and Japanese economic collapse:
Japan- democracy collapsed, militarism took over
German- Collapsed

35
Q

Recreating Liberal Order (2.0) -Bretton Woods 1944

A
  • Consensus that they needed to create a new world order
  • Representatives from Britain and US met with other western countries to recreate and international liberal order
  • Created the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
    -Dedicated to free and fair trade
    -Aimed at reducing Tariffs
  • Created the World Bank
    -Dedicated to fostering development
    -Also focus on rebuilding Europe after the war
  • Created the International Monetary Fund ( IMF)
    -Help countries manage their finances
  • International Monetary System

Pillars of the new Liberal economic Order:
-The Bretton Woods Institutions - IMF, World Bank
-The GATT (1948)
-The Fixed Exchange Regime (Bretton woods Regime )

Effects–>
* Tariff rates go down
-Countries apart of GATT comes together and agrees on tariff negotiations
Trade Agenda becomes more ambitious

There still are Non-tariff barriers (NTBs):
-NTBs do not raise revenue for the home country
-They are regulations that block or restrict imports based on local content provisions, environmental and safety concerns, Etc.
-Have proliferates as tariffs have gone down

36
Q

Trade

Post Cold War

A
  • 1995 WTO (the new liberal international order)
  • Spread of the WTO
    -Most countries are members
  • 2001 China Joins the WTO
    -Human rights concerns
    -China joined on provisional basis that was received every year
  • 2008 Global Financial Crisis Starts
    -Unexpected
    -American Investment House and lost of other counties went under
    -Serious economic impacts
    –>Decrease in trade
    –>Drop in employment
  • Government chose not to raise taxes

**Anti-Liberal Backlash **
* Republicans & Democrats move to an Anti free trade direction after world war

37
Q

Trade

Why Free Trade?

A

Three Major Perspectives:
* The Neoliberal
* The Mercantilist (Realist)
* The Marxist (anti-market liberalism)

Liberal Answer 1 -State planning is inefficient and cannot deliver:
* Worst disaster ex- Mao; the chinese Great Leap Forward 1959-1962
-The reality of socialist planning: lack of food bc there were no harvesting why still milling, 40 to 50 million starved to death

38
Q

Trade

Free Markets

A
  • Exploiting Comparative advantage leads to greater production
  • Interdependence leads to peace
    -Benefits of cooperation increase
    -Also cost of conflict increase
  • Fosters Democracy
    -People become more able to participate in political process
    -More educated
    -Democratic Peace Hypothesis
    -Economic Freedom goes together with Political Freedom
    Freedom
    –>Get State out of peoples ideals
39
Q

Free Markets

Liberals accept that there are forms of Market Failure

A

Market failures:
* Public goods
* Negative externalities (e.g. pollution)
* Monopolies/oligopolies
-Business want to control the price
-Eg: Rockefeller and Standard Oil
-Globalization may lead to declining standards in developing countries
* Business cycle fluctuations and financial crisis
* Transaction costs of adjustments

40
Q

The Business cycle:

Economy goes Up and it goes Down

=

A
  • Drop in consumer confidence
    -Crisis in terms of their confidence
    -People stop buying products
  • Consumer demand goes shown
    -Businesses have to economize (make changes to accommodate) at business level
    –>Lay people off
  • John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946)
    -British Economist
    -Argued that the cause of the Great Depression was a lack of demand resulting from a sharp downturn in the business cycle
41
Q

Neo-Liberal Prescription

A
  • Provide public goods– such as education, critical infrastructure
  • Regulate industry – prevent negative externalities
  • Break up monopolies
  • Welfare state to help cushion adjustment costs and aid workers and regions
  • Intervene when there is a systemic crisis
42
Q

Critisism of Neo-Liberalism

Fredrich Hayek

A
  • Austrian economist 1899-1992
  • Argues that governments can’t predict the business cycle
  • Government propping up the economy creates “moral hazard” and bad growth
  • Moral Hazard
    -Tends to favor the powerful
    -Governments given too much power become tyranny
    –>Market economy to socialist economy
43
Q

The Realist (neomercantalist) argument

A
  • Economics reflects political hierarchies
  • National governments must be sensitive to the political and military consequences of trade and investment (relative gains)
  • States can foster economic growth working with business
    -Comparative advantage
    -Industrial policy
  • National Power Correlates closely with economic power
  • US also intent on protecting it industries
  • Foolish to ignore the strategic consequences of trade
44
Q

Neomercantalist

States can foster economic growth through Industrial Policy

A
  • Administrative Guidance
  • State subsidies — direct and indirect
    -Direct- giving direct money
    -Indirect - through tax policy, technology policy
  • Cartel policy
    -Ensuring docile labor force
    -US promotes its own first while targeting Chinese
  • Controlling Access to domestic Markets – Tariffs and NTBs
  • Labor Union Policies
45
Q

Neomercantalist

Realist (neomercantalist) Playlist

A
  • Remain sensitive to the implications of trade for balance of power
    -Relative Gains
  • Support critically important industries
  • Try to weaken or made dependent the critical industries of potential rivals
    -Russia making Europe dependent on energy: Gas pipelines turned off by Russia
46
Q

Marxist Critique of the Free Market

A
  • The state is the product of the socio-economic order
  • International organizations are an extension of this order
  • Leads to Immiseration
    -Leading to Socialist Revolution
  • An updated version of Marxist theories of Imperialism – Dependency (world systems) Theory

The Terms of trade are manipulated by the powerful :
* Core
-(core countries keep control and send resources to periphery countries)
* Semi-Periphery
* Periphery

47
Q

Marxist Critique of the Free Market

Domination by Transnational Elites

A
  • Focusing not on countries, but on the elite that benefit from globalization (the elites of society, the powerful rich people)
  • The role of Multinational Corporations (MNC)
    -They (the rich) have control over Multinational Corporations (MNC)
    -Samsung, apple, Amazon
    -Globalization allows MNCs to sidestep regulations especially in declining developing countries
48
Q

Marxist Critique of the Free Market

Less radical versions of the idea that the rich benefit are possible

A
  • Thomas Puketty (book- “Capital”)
  • An updates of Marxist ideas
  • Improvement in life expectancy as well
  • Rising inequality lends credence to this view
  • Also inequality within the rich countries
49
Q

Marxist Critique of the Free Market

The Marxis and Neo-marxist Solutions

A
  • Marx – revolution (violent if necessary) and socialization of the means of production
  • Neo-Marxist– strong state intervenes to promote social equality
    -Strong welfare state
    -Strong regulation
    -Redistribution tax policies
50
Q

Economy/Money

What is money?

A
  • Money is a:
    -Medium of exchange
    -Unit of Account
    -Store of Value
  • People Naturally create money
    -Fathers in Central America cigarettes in prison cowry shells in
    West Africa, chuck e cheese coins
  • Around three thousand years ago States begin to create their own money to support trade and strength state finances
    -Over time state issued currency displaced other forces of money
51
Q

Economy/Money

18th century Britan begins to back its paper with Gold Bullion

A
  • Has the advantage of increasing confidence in currency, encouraging trade and investment both domestically and internationally
  • A strong, stable currency allows governments to raise money by issuing bonds at low interest rates
    -Government Bond: Ways in which Government raise money in society
    –>Governments take loans from the public by issuing bonds→ in return, the investors earn interest income; upon maturity, investors allow earn back the principal
    –>State borrows from population, says they will give money back at a certain date with interest given for the bond amount they borrowed
  • London becomes financial capital of the world
52
Q

Economy/Money

Governments want to smooth out the business cycle

A
  • When economic growth is too slow and unemployment is high, governments want to cut interest rates to encourage people to sped and firms to borrow
  • But when economic growth is too fast and inflation goes up
    It’s time to take away the punch bowl
    -Central Banks raise interest rates to slow down the economy and reduce inflation, even at the cost of rising unemployment, increased bankruptcies, etc.
53
Q

Economy/Money

Trouble with the Gold Standard

A
  • The Gold Standard acted as a limitation of government ability to issue currency –had to have bullion to back it
  • Critics complain overly limits the State’s ability to respond to changing economic cons
  • Broke down in 1930s during Great Depression
54
Q

Economy/Money

The Anatomy of Financial Crisis

A
  • The Two rules of financial crisis
    -Don’t Panic
    -Panic First
  • Governments can step in to restore confidence
  • 1944 – The Bretton Woods Fixed Exchange Rate Regime
    -1- US backs its own currency with stores of Gold Bullion
    -2 -US like allied currencies to US dollar at fixed exchange rate
    -Periodic adjustments to the fixed exchange rate negotiated by –the member governments
    -Became increasingly expensive for the US to maintain
    -System collapses by 1973
    –>Becomes floating exchange rate: A system in which the interplay of the market forces of demand and supply determine a currency’s value
55
Q

Economy/Money

Created the international Monetary Fund & Conditionality

A
  • Headquartered in Washington DC
  • Staff of 2,400
  • 190 countries are members
  • Provides technical support and supervision of member finances
  • Helps arrange for liquidity (bail outs) when financial crisis hit
  • Can lend approximately 1 trillion dollars
  • Works together with governments and private lenders
  • Current Director Kristalina Georgieva
    -Bulgarian Economist
    -Postgraduate work at the London School of Economics and MIT
    -Like all IMF directors, a European

Conditionality:
* The IMF requires recipients of its loans to fulfill conditions (Conditionality)
* If the cause of the financial crisis is due to government policies the states need to ender “Structural Adjustment Programs”
* Aim is to avoid Moral Hazard and reduce the risk of new crises
* Often quite painful

56
Q

Economy/Money

Created the World Bank

A
  • Headquartered in Washington DC
  • Staff of about 9,000 world wide
  • 189 countries are members
  • Primary focus is making loans to developing countries
  • Issues about $20 billion in new loans every year
  • Appx. 200 billion in total loans
  • Current President David Malpass
    -Economic analyst and former Government Official under Donald Trump
    -MBA from University of Denver
    -Former Chief Economist at US investment Bank Bear Stearns (now defunct)
    -Like all IMP presidents, a US citizen
57
Q

Economy/Money

Both the IMF and the World Bank long guided by the “Washington Consensus”

A
  • For a long time pushed countries to adopt broadly neo-liberal reforms
  • In recent years criticized and have move to support poverty reduction, education and tailoring bailouts and loans to specific conditions of recipient countries
58
Q

Economy/Money

Shaking the Consensus 1

A
  • 1982-1985 The Latin American Debt Crisis
  • IMF loans help tide over the Latin American governments, but austerity causes great social unrest
  • Latin American per capita growth nearly -9% for a decade
59
Q

Economy/Money

Shaking the Consensus 2

A
  • 1998-1999
  • Sudden crisis of confidence in Asian currencies leads to collapse in value of currencies
  • IMF again imposes austerity, leading to social and political upheaval
  • Unlike Latin America, low debt levels among Asian countries
  • Director Michel Camdessues forces Indonesian President Suharto to accept the IMF’s terms
  • Demonstrations in Korea, Food Riots in Indonesia
60
Q

Economy/Money

2007-2009
The Great Recession

A
  • Subprime mortgage crisis shakes the US financial system to the core
  • US government pumps money into the economy – “Quantitative Easing”
  • Fear of Financial Contagion (whole economy tanking as Banks fall)
  • Austerity seems to be for other people in other countries
61
Q

Economy/Money

Challenging the Consensus

A
  • China’s Belt and Road Initiative
    -Announced by Xi Jinping in 2013
    -Lending to build massive infrastructure project from China through Central and Southeast Asia to Africa and Europe
    -Estimates range up to over $900 billion in loans made by 2022
62
Q

Economy/Money

An Alternative Model to the Washington Consensus?

A
  • The Beijing Consensus
  • Stronger State role in guiding economic development
  • Focus on pragmatic, step by step reforms instead of Neo-liberal shock therapy
63
Q

Economy/Money

Next Crisis brewing…?

A
  • Debt crisis in developing countries
    -Sri Lanka in crisis – can’t pay back its debts
  • Dollar continues to appreciate, which often poses risks to countries with USD-denominated liabilities
64
Q

Ethics

A contradiction in Terms?

A
  • Seen as the paragon of amorality in politics
  • Niccolo Machiavelli
    -uthor of “The Prince”
  • The “is” versus the “ought”
  • “It is better to be feared than to be loved, if you cannot be both”
  • Politics is marked by “cunning, duplicity or bad faith”
  • Italy 1500– Beset by mercenaries, dominated by outside forces – MAchiavelli wants a strong Prince who can save Italy by uniting her
65
Q

Ethics

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

A
  • Enlightenment Philosopher
  • Although considered anti-religious, he was theistic
  • Trying to recreate morality for an age of reason
  • “Categorical Imperative” – there are absolute rules we can discover through reason
    -Idea that there are certain principles that are universal
  • All human beings are ends, not means
66
Q

Ethics

Catagorical Imperative

A
  • How can we know something “objectively”
  • What to do when our principles (categorical Imperatives) clash
    -Ex: how well does “though shalt not kill” work if wer are faced with attack by Nazis?
67
Q

Ethics

Cosmopolitanism (Liberal Position)

A
  • From “Cosmos” –the world and “polis” the city state –bringing together the many into one world
  • Ethical position that there are common standards of justice that we can find across the national barriers and within and across political and cultural boundaries
  • May be based on reason and discourse uncovering universal truths
  • Globalized world it becomes imperative to find such standards
    -Working together to create common standards
  • “Thick” versus “Thin” versions (how far does reason and discord take us?)
68
Q

Realist/Statist ethics (Realist Postion)

A
  • Every state- and every nation- has its own ethical standards
  • States may agree to ceritna standards, but those are transactional in nature
  • Claims to universal principle are often the tools of self interest and tyranny
  • Napoleon Bonaparte
    -Claimed to be spreading truth and justice
    -Self-proclaimed Emperor of France and would-be uniter of Europe
69
Q

Ethics

Just War Theory

Orignis

A
  • Are there standards of justice in war?
  • Jus ad Bellum – when is the right to go to war?
    -Jus in Bello – what is the right to do in war?
  • How to conduct war
  • (Jus post Bellum – what should be done after a conflict?)
    -Standards after the war, justice
  • The Origins of Just War Theory
  • Saint Augustine (354-430 AD)
  • Born into the late Roman Empire
  • Bishop of the City of Hippo in North Africa
  • Confronted with invasion by Barbarians – The Vandals
70
Q

Just War Theory

Jus ad Bellum

A
  • Just cause (Casus Belli)
  • Legitimate Authority
  • Likelihood of Success
  • Proportionality
  • Last Resort
71
Q

Just War Theory

Jus in Bello

A
  • Proportionality
  • Immunity of Persons (protection of noncombatants)
  • Weaponry Rules
  • Prisoners of War
72
Q

Race/Gender

Essentializing Gender

A
  • Certain stereotypes of what it is to be a “man” or to be a “women” become embedded in a society
  • Has economic, social, and political consequences
  • Can impact on International relations in multiple ways
73
Q

Race/Gender

Genealogy of Gender in IR

A
  • Starting Point – Traditional Western Patriarchy
  • Male Stereotype - dominant outside the home as breadwinner, soldier, political, spiritual and intellectual leadership roles reserved for men
  • Female Stereotype - subservient inside the home, focus on (unpaid) domestic household
  • Limited or zero tolerance for non-binary Genders (LGBTQ+)
74
Q

Race/Gender

Enlightenment Challengers

A
  • Mary Wollstonecraft 1759-1797
  • Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832
75
Q

Race/Gender

Political Challenges

A

Growing Education level of women leads to increased political power :
* 1848 Seneca Falls Convention –rights for women
* 1872- Formation of the Suffrage movement in the UK
* 1718- Limited suffrage in Sweden
* 1918- Suffrage in UK
* 1920- Suffrage in the US
* 1971- Switzerland

76
Q

Race/Gender

Parallel Development in Economics

A
  • Increased education enables women to enter the workforce
  • Acceleration during the World Wars
77
Q

Race/Gender

UN Human Righs System

A

1947 – The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

PO/IR (6 decks)

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