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IR FINAL Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of Institutions

A
  • Increase opportunities to communicate at the senior level
  • Improve low of information
  • Lengthen the “shadow of the future”
  • Can monitor agreements and help prevent cheating
  • Provide technical information
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2
Q

International institutions

A Constructivist take

Martha Finnemore (Professor George Washington University, DC)

A
  • Norms are constitutive
  • They can reshape how states understand the worlds – how it is and how it should be
  • The diffusion of international norms is reshaping the world
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3
Q

International institutions

Critical and Marxist Perspective

Michael Cox (LSE)

A
  • International institutions create a world order that serves the interest of powerful elites
  • Facilitates the spread of that (capitalism) order
  • Elites in Core countries use institutions to co-opt the elites in peripheral (and semi-peripheral) countries
  • Create a form of Gramscian Hegemony – legitimates the actions of elites and disguises them
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4
Q

Sample Global Institution: United Nation Headquarters in NY

A
  • Key UN bodies
  • The UNSE – Security Council– P5 plus 10 rotating members
  • The UN General Assembly – 193 members (2016) – deliberative body. Votes on UN issues and passes non-binding motions
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5
Q

International Organizations: The United Nations

A

Secretariat and Secretary-General :
* Secretary-General :
-Serves a five-year term
-“Chief executive” of the UN
-Little power to act independently
-Role varies with personality and style
* The Secretariat
-Large international civil service
-Handles administrative functions
-44,000 staff worldwide, 5.4 billion budget (2014-2015)

  • General Assembly
    -All members have one seat, one vote
    -Primary forum for discussion of global issues
    -Evolution of General Assembly
    –>United States’ resolutions
    –>Developing countries
    -Budgets disputes
    –>Inhibited the effectiveness of the GA
    –>U.S. arrears
    -Overloaded agenda
  • UN is dependent on Member states for funds
  • Simplified UN organizational chart
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6
Q

The UN: International Court of Justice

A
  • (meditating court)
  • Headquartered in the Hague
  • Principal judicial organ
  • Fifteen justices elected by the GA and Security Council
  • Decisions by majority vote
  • Justices are expected to act independently
  • Decisions are formally binding
  • No mechanisms for enforcement of its rulings
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7
Q

The UN: Economic and Social Council (Ecosoc)

A
  • Coordinates specialized organizations
  • Humanitarian efforts (UNICEF, WHO, FAO)
  • Environmental issues and sustainable development (UNEP and UNDP)
  • Controversies
    -International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
    -UN Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
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8
Q

Provision and Critical Aid
UN Peacekeeping Missions

(3 types)

A
  • Three types
    -Observer missions
    -Peacekeeping missions
    -Peace enforcement missions
  • Changing times have often outpaced the UN’s ability
    -Mixed success in post-Cold War
    Ex: former Yugoslavia and Somalia
  • Problems:
    -Lack of funding
    -Mission creep
    -Post conflict reconstruction and peace building
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9
Q

UN effectiveness

A
  • Purpose of veto power
  • Effectiveness hampered by national sovereignty
  • Political and economic sanctions have proven effective in some cases
  • Successes:
    -World forum for discussion of issues
    -Humanitarian relief
    -Facilitated collective security
  • Has not brought about world peace
  • Challenge for the future: adapt its structure and missions – especially the UNSC
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10
Q

Regional Organizations

A
  • The European UNion
  • North Atlantic Free Trade Association (NAFTA)
  • Association of SouthEast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
  • Organization of African Unity (OAU)
  • Organization of American States (OAS)
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11
Q

EU

Evolution of the European Union

A
  • 1952 – The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
  • 1957 – The Treaties of Rome – European Economic Community (EEU)
    -Six States sign the Treaty of Rome
  • 1986 – The Single European Act
  • 1991 – Treaty of European Unity (Maastricht) – EU
  • 2008 – The Treaty of Lisbon
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12
Q

EU

Other Competencies

A
  • Immigration
  • Common passport
  • The Schengen agreement
  • Efforts to coordinate refugee and asylum policies (the Dublin Accord)
  • Joint efforts to combat crime and terrorism - Europool
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13
Q

EU

Foreign Affairs and Defense Policy

A
  • ESDI
  • Eurocorps
  • European High Representative for Foreign and Security Affairs (Frederica Morgherini)
  • European Commission for trade matters
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14
Q

EU

Monetary and fiscal policy

A
  • European Central Bank
  • ECONFIN on the Council of Ministers
  • 2021 temporary 1 trillion dollar resilience fund
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15
Q

International Summits

A
  • The G7
    -Founded in 1989 to deal with economic turmoil by leading Western economies
    -Countries to coordinate economic and security affairs between US and its key allies
  • G20 Summit
    -Fist meets in 1999 in Berlin
    -Initially found to deal with financial issues
    -Its memberships all together account for 80% of the global economy
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16
Q

Global gov and Env

Population growth places strains on the environment

A
  • Resource depletion
    -Food
    -Non-renewable energy
  • Pollution – air, water
  • Biodiversity
  • Climate change

Development - which is good - makes things worse in terms of demands on resources… and different forms of pollution

While action on the environment must being at the local level, they have global effects and can only be tackled collectively “Collective action problem

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17
Q

Environment

Collective Action Problem I –The stag Hunt

A
  • Collective Action Problem I –The stag Hunt
  • Jean Jacques Rousseau French philosopher 1712-1778
  • Farmers in winter seek to catch a stag
  • All must work together to get the stag
  • But each farmer could get a rabbit
  • Unsure that all will cooperate, it is rational to not cooperate and be sure of getting a rabbit
  • Game theoretic depiction

Real World Example of Collective Action - Climate Change

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18
Q

Environment

Impacts of Global Warming

A
  • Water levels rise in some areas – melting ice caps
  • Desertification in others
  • Extreme weather events -eg. Tsunamis, hurricanes, etc.
  • Potential for step level changes
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19
Q

A realist Take-Environment

A
  • States cooperate when it is in their interest to do so– interest understood in terms of the balance of power
    -Environments connection to the balance of power is indirect
  • Constrained by relative gains concerns
    -In a competitive situation, harder to corporate
  • Hegemon can mitigate the collective action problem
    -The Empty Throne – US hegemony is waning, and the US is internally conflicted on climate change

2001 Bush “unsigns” Kyoto Protocol
2017 Trump withdraws from the Paris Climate Agreement

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20
Q

Realist take- Env

Climate Change as seen as a Liberal Conspiracy

A

Pro-Republican Cartoon mocking Democratic Presidential Candidate and noted Climate Change activist Al Gore

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21
Q

Securitizing Environmental Security an attempted solution–Impacts on nations

A
  • Impact on US national interests
    -Climate change negatively affecting parts of the United States
    -Desertification in the West and South West
    -Floods in the Southeast and along the Gulf
    -Potential for increase in climate induced migration from Latin America
  • US Allies as affected – example Europe
    -Drought and heat waves in large parts of Europe this Summer
    -Paralyzing transport along European river systems (the Rhine)
    -Prospect for increased climate induces migration from Africa and the Middle East
  • PRC also negatively affected -China has been growing concerned
    Air and Water Pollution increasingly focus on public discontent
    Heat waves causing desertification in Western China
  • US – China Climate Cooperation “G2” since the Obama administration
    -Taken up again under Biden
    -Parallel to Non-Proliferation regime forged by the US and USSR during the Cold War
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22
Q

Liberal Take- Enviornment

A
  • The Environmental and transboundary environmental issues another form of interdependence
  • Need to build or adapt existing international institutions to tackle the problem
  • Institutions enhance states’ ability to communicate and coordinate
  • Reduce the risk of cheating by monitoring agreements
  • Arrange for “side payments” to incentivize states to change their behavior
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23
Q

Liberal Take- Climate

National governments begin to respond by building domestic institutions

A
  • 1970 Nixon Administration founds the Environmental Protection Agency
  • Other OECD countries follow

The UN gets involved:
* 1972 – Stockholm – Conference on Human Development
* 1987 – Brundtland Report – concept of “sustainable development”
-The Brundtland Commission published Our Common Future – “Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
-UN Commission headed by former Norwegian Prime Minister

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24
Q

Discovery of the Ozone Hole

A
  • Source found to be CFC emissions
  • 1968– Montreal Protocol leads the sharp decline in emissions
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25
Q

Liberal take- Climate

UN turns to Climate Change

A
  • 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
  • Issue the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
  • Leads to the regular Conference of Party (COP) meetings beginning in 1995 in Berlin
  • And to 1997 Kyoto Protocol in Climate Change
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26
Q

1997 Kyoto Protocol

A
  • Aims to set legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
  • Adopts the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” – poor countries exempted
  • Creation of an Environmental Adaptation Fund to help poorer countries (a side payment)
  • Weak enforcement mechanisms
  • US President Bush unsigns in 2001, followed by Canada, Japan, and Russia
  • Mixed successes
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27
Q

2015 Paris Agreement

A
  • States agree to try to hold the increase in global temperature to “well below 2 degrees C” by the end of the century
  • Aim for net zero emissions by 2050
  • 50% of reduction by 2030
  • Each country to come up with their own action plans
  • To be reviewed by COP every 5 years
  • 2020 review concludes 3 degree rise by end of century
  • Growing Focus on Mitigation plus Adaptation
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28
Q

A Constructivist Take

A
  • Need to change people’s minds
  • Begin with creating a consensus on what is happening
  • Then change public and elite attitudes
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29
Q

Development of the Environmental Issue

A
  • T.R. Malthus (1766-1834) –English cleric and economist
  • Predicted that population growth inevitably outruns food supplies
  • In effect pioneers the idea of resource scarcity
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30
Q

Constructivits Take-Climate

Malthus affirmed (Irish Potato Famine)

A
  • 1849 – Potato blight haveles Irish food supplies
  • Approximately one million die, another two million emigrate
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31
Q

1863 – Alkali Acts, United Kingdom

A

Restricts emissions of toxic Substances by rapidly growing industry

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32
Q

Late 19th Century – Conservation movements, the beginning of supporting biodiversity

A
  • James Ranald Martin – English Conservationist
  • Teddy Roosevelt in the US
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33
Q

Climate Change Pioneers

A

1940s – English Scientist Guy Stewart Callendar warns of human induced (anthropogenic) global warming

34
Q

19602 – Start of the modern environmental movement – raising the alarm over DDT

A
  • Book “Silent Spring” -Rachel Carson
    -Book about pesticides
35
Q

Rise of the Environmental Movement

A
  • 1968 – Club of Rome – Limits of Growth
  • 1969 – Green Peace Founded – Preserving the environment
  • Green Movements emerge – especially strong in Europe
  • The Culture Becomes engages
    -Movies:
    –>Soylent Green (1973)
    –>Day after Tomorrow (2004)
36
Q

Creating an Epistemic Community

A

Forging an Epistemic Community on Climate Change – James Hansen (NASA) – 1988

  • Scientists and Policy makers from around the world share views
  • Over time come to common understandings and shifting understanding of interests – in the long run identity
  • The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
37
Q

Climate Activism continues in the 21st Century

A

Greta Thunberg, UN, 2019; Earth Day Walk, India 2020)

Growing global concern – with some big exceptions

38
Q

Marxist Take -Climate

A

Green is the New Red:
* A marxist take
* Capitalism is inherently destructive of the environment
* Only root and branch transformation/elimination of capitalism will solve the problem

39
Q

Implications of Environmental issues for IR

A
  • Environmental degradation may cause social unrest and failed states (Realism)
  • Eg. Sudan
  • Competition for Scarce resources promotes inter-state violence (Realism)
  • Creates incentives for states to cooperate (Liberalism)
  • Emergence of Environmental Consciousness shifting the definition of national interest (Constructivism)
  • Growing Environmental Destruction another manifestation of the internal contradictions of capitalism– leading to revolution (Critical Theory/Marxism)
40
Q

World Migrations

A

Two Developments shape the character of Migration today: The nation state and the expanded role of Government in managing the economy

41
Q

Migration brings many benefits

A
  • Expand the workforce
  • Bring new skills and knowledge
  • Do work others unwilling to do
  • Source of Entrepreneurship
  • Pay taxes
  • Especially important for aging societies
  • Cultural Enrichment
  • Potential Military resources
  • Share common tires – religion, ethnicity, family relations
42
Q

The Paradox of International norms

A
  • In a world of states they would seem fragile and easy to brush aside
  • Yet, states and leaders spend an enormous amount of time and energy creating them, they refer to them constantly and are remarkably persistent
  • Why?
43
Q

A Typology of Norms, Rules and Organizations

A
  • A norm – a standard regarding the way the world should be
  • Rule – a set of regulations regarding how something is to be done
  • An international organization – a multilateral group with a permanent secretariat
44
Q

International Law – The building blocks of International Order

A
  • Constitutional Norms
  • Fundamental institutions
  • Regimes
45
Q

Constitutional Norms

A
  • Sovereignty – Westphalia 1948
  • 1933 Montevideo Convention – a state as a person under international law, with a defined population, territory, government, and the ability to enter into relations with another state
46
Q

The Importance – and dangers of declaring statehood

A

Middle East
East Asia: China & Taiwan

47
Q

The sources of International Law

A
  • Natural Law
    -Divinity- Religion
    -Cerita principles that we have, as human beings, simply know is right
    -EX: Crimes against Humanity Auschwitz and Nuremberg Trials
  • Customary Law (Jus Gentium)
    -Origins in Roman Empire
    -Generally accepted rules, that shouldn’t need to be explained
    –>Ex: If there is a storm at sea, a ship should seek shelter a any port and the port should give haven for the ship
    –>EX: Diplomatic Immunity
    ——->Accreditation of Ambassadors
    ——->Persona non gratis
  • Positive (Contractual Law)
    -Arrived at by agreement, agreement to abide by certain
    -A Positive law is a general command issued by the sovereign of an independent political society (a contract)
48
Q

International Regimes: Rules, norms, and procedures around which actors expectations converge

Exampes:

A

Examples:
-Nonproliferation Regime
-UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
-International Convention on Civil and political Rights (1966)

49
Q

History of International Law

A
  • A set of Western institutions reflecting Western discourse and interest
  • Spread World Wide
50
Q

Trends in International Law

A
  • Increases emphasis on positive law (Chiristian Reus-Smit)
  • Increasingly Multilateral (1815 Congress of Vienna)
  • Reasoning by analogy (Fritz Kratochwil)
  • Increased move towards institutional autonomy
  • Recently increasingly supranational
51
Q

Trend towards Supranationalism I

A
  • 1864 – The Geneva Convention on treatment of prisoners and wounded
  • Drawn up in response to the 1859 Franco-Italian (piedmont War)
  • Participation of the COmmittee of the International Red Cross
  • Part of a trend towards giving NGOs a role in creating and managing international law and Organizations
  • Updated multiple times – most importantly 1925
52
Q

Trends towards Supranationalism II- rules of Law

A
  • 1899 and 1907 –Treaties of the Hague -Jus in Bello
  • Outlaws Dum Dum Bullets, Aerial bombardment and poison gas
  • Prosecuting War Crimes - Like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500?
53
Q

Supranationalism III – The rise of Universal Human Rights

A

Eleanore Roosevelt with the text of the 1948 Universal Declaration

54
Q

International Criminal Tribunals

A
  • Nazi defendants at Nurembers, 1948
  • Serb leader Radovan Karadzic being Led to face trial at the International Criminal Tribunal Yugoslavia, 2008

The International Criminal Court
-Established in the Hague, Netherlands, 2002

An American Nightmare
-Movenment to indict Kissinger for war crimes: Support for the PPinochet Regime in Chille; Bombing in South Vietnam

55
Q

Types of International Organizations:

A
  • International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)
    -Eg: UN, World Bank, NATO
  • International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs)
    -World Wildlife Federation, Amnesty International
  • Hybrid
    -International Labor Organization (ILO), International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
    -Many Public Interest Unions (PIUs)
56
Q

Henry A. Kissinger – The Realist Master of using International Institutions

A
  • Realists see institutions as reflective of the existing balance of power
  • Create them to pursue mutual interests
  • Limited by relative gains
  • Hegemon can mitigate relative gains concerns
  • Useful tools, but nothing more
57
Q

Robert O. Keohane – Liberal prophet of International Institutionalism

A
  • States create international institutions based on rational calculation of interest
  • Norms and regulative (eg. like traffic lights)
  • As the world globalized and states become more interdependent institutions become more supranational
  • More NGOs take on a role
  • Rules become more binding
58
Q

Citizens expect the Nation State to provide meaning

A

The state is held responsible for create a unifying national narrative they can believe in and to uphold the values they hold dear

Citizens expect the state to manage the economy and provide a social safety net

59
Q

But immigrants also raise many fears

A
  • Some fears are economic
    -Fear of labor market competition
    -Fear of competition for welfare benefits
60
Q

Some fears are related to national identity

A
  • Can immigrants be incorporated into the “nation”?
  • Long term migration Raises the use of how to define the Nation?
    -Shared Creed? How do we know they share those ideals?
    -Shared Language?
    -Shared ethnicity (race)?
  • The definition are contested and often shift over time
61
Q

Difficult Case: Palestinian Refugees

A
  • In the Middle East 5.6 million Palestinians live in refugee camps – many since the wars with Israel in 1949 and 1967
  • Arab League has instructed its members not to grant them citizenship so as to “avoid the dissolution of their identity and protect their right to return to their homeland”
  • Israel has viewed these communities as security threats leading to periodic clashes and invitations – notably in Lebanon and Gaza
  • Many Arab countries tend to view refugees as internal security threats – notably in Lebanon and Jordan
62
Q

Associations of Immigrants with Crime and Terrorism

A

Assaination of US President William McKinley by Leon Colgosz, Polish Anarchist, September 6, 1901

63
Q

Caution regarding foreign crime statistics

A
  • Some crimes – ie visa violations – can only be committed by foreigners
  • Need to control for age, gender, and employment
  • Discriminatory targeting of minority groups by law enforcement
64
Q

Caution regarding Terrorism and Immigration

A
  • Only a very small percentage of immigrants in Europe join terrorist organizations
  • Perceptions that immigrant communities are discriminated against can increase the incidenct of terrorism
  • To prevent terrorism the cooperation of the immigrant community is critical
  • Historically, police recruited from communities best able to police those communities
65
Q

Failure to manage the type rope can be costly

A
  • Europe has seen the rise of right-wing populist parties – especially over the past 10 years
  • Number one issue for most of them – stopping immigration
66
Q

The immigration Policy Tightrope

A

The immigration Dilemma:

  • Control Immigration too much
    1-Fail to reap the benefits of migration
    2-Prevent the long-term integration of migrants
  • Control immigration too little
    1-Incur the costs of immigration
    2-Face a political backlash
67
Q

How to manage the migration dilemma Part 1: Regulating Flows

A
  • Entry/exit rules – visas
  • Border control
  • Internal controls – inspections, raids, employer sanctions, documents
  • Detention
  • Deportations
  • Cooperation with sending states
68
Q

Migration

Cooperation with Sending States Esential

A
  • Need to set up procedures to handle visas, border management, deportations, etc.
  • Share information on possible ciminal/terrorist connections
69
Q

Managing the Migration Dilemma Part 2: Integration

A
  • Without draconian and costly methods, there will be a growing foreign born population
  • Various stages and dimensions of integration – legal, economic, social, etc.
  • Global migration: Number of people living abroad at a record high
70
Q

Realist Take- Migration

A
  • Refugees are both a tool of the national interest and a potential threat to it
  • Warrior Refugees can be a potential source of military power
    -Ex: Afghan Mujahideen
    -Ex: The Taliban
  • Refugees are also a potential source of inter-state conflict

Afghanistan: Rise of the Warrior Refugees
* After the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan 4 million Afghans flee to neighboring Pakistan, over a million more to Iran
* US and Pakistan armed the men and sent them back to fight the Soviets as Mujaheddin
* After the Soviets defeated, Pakistani intelligence (the ISI) used its ties to create the Taliban
* After the US toppled the Taliban, Pakistan gave refuge to many keeping the insurgency alive until the US driven out/left in 2021

Example of Refugee triggered conflict– Haiti 1992
* 1991 – President Jean Bertrand Aristide tippled by Haitian Armed forces
* Civil unrest and state sponsored violence leads to a large-scale refugee crisis – initially 50,000 flee to the US by boat. Others via Mexico
* → crisis at the US’ doorstep
–September 15, 1994 – President Bill Clinton announce Operation Uphold Democracy
–>25,000 US troops take over Haiti and restore Aristide – stay for the next two years until the UN takes over

71
Q

Constructivist Take- Migration

A
  • Immigration in general raises a profound questions about national identity and values
  • Some refugees may fit the national self understanding
  • Others pose a challenge – especially in states with a strong ethno-cultural self definition
    -Ex: Israel
    –>The Example of Israel – whoever is a Jew deserves a home in Israel
    –>But Israel is contested Homeland – 948 – the Nakba – Approximately 700,000 Palestinians flee
    –>UN Relief and works Agency for Palestinian Refugees Orgnized to create temporary camps – are there still
    –>But are not all Welcome – the problem of Palestinian refugees. One of the most intractable problems in International Politics
72
Q

A liberal IR Take- Migration

A
  • Refugees pose an urgent humanitarian challenge (Human Security)
  • They also are a major challenge for absorbing into the existing domestic socialism economic and political order
  • International institutions are needed to manage the challenge, but lead to severe coordination problems
73
Q

Major Post WWI Refugee Flows create a crisis

A
  • 1915 Armenians fleeing Turkey
  • From 1919 on Russians Fleeting the Russian revolution
  • 1922 Greeks flee Turkey and Turks flee Greece
  • Jewish and other Refugees fleeing the Third Reich after 1933
74
Q

Migration

The Armenian Genocide

A
  • During WWI – Turkey deports Armenian population suspected of Russian sympathies
  • Approximately 2 million die of starvation and prosecution
  • First time the word “Genocide” applied
75
Q

Migration

Henry Morgenthau, Sr.

A
  • US Ambassador to Turkey
  • Organizes relief operations to help Armenian refugees – over $100 Million raised
76
Q

Migration

Frithjof Nansen

A
  • League of Nations sets up a Commission to deal with refugee issues
  • Led by celebrated Norwegian Arctic explorer
  • Immediately faced with a number of crises:
  • Resettlement of WWI Prisoners of War from over 30 countries
  • Famine relief in Russia
  • Resettlement of Greek – Turkish refugees resulting from WWI
  • Continued efforts to help resettle Armenian from Turkey
77
Q

1924 Reed – Johnson Immigration Act – US closes the door

A
  • 1939 – Tragedy of Jewish Refugees on the St. Louis, US turns away over 900 Jewsish refugees
78
Q

20th Century Apocalypse: Approx. # Victims of “Administrative Massacres” 1933-1945

A
  • German Victims – 6 million Jews and approximately 6 million additional victims – gypsies, poles, homosexuals, socialists, handicapped, etc., plus anti-partisan reprisal killings, –12 million total
  • Japanese Victims in East Asia – approximately three to ten million civilians killed in counter-insurgency campaigns
  • Soviet Victims – 1 to 1.2 million killed in purges, 5-7 million starved to death in the Ukraine and Kazakhstan, 1.5 to 1.7 million in the Gulag archipelago, 500,000 – killed in the collectivization of agriculture – total: 8 to 10.2 million
79
Q

1951 Geneva Convention on the Status of Refugees

A
  • People with a well- founded fear of persecution have a right to asylum
  • Persecution defined as political persecution (not famine, unemployment, etc.)
  • Principle of non-refoulement – don’t send people back to face persecution
  • Central Principle of the Geneva Convention
  • Creates the UNHCR
  • Initially limited to before 1951 and Europe – limitations removed in 1967 Protocol
80
Q

Expanding the Definition of Refugees

A
  • 1969- OAU Convention on Refugees – expands to include those facing discrimination based on rade, ethnicity, and political belief (focus on Arpartheid)
  • 1984 – Organization of American States in Cartagena, Colombia expanded the definition to those who lives or security have been threatened by generalized violence
81
Q

UNHCR (Created 1948)

A
  • Current head – Filippo Grandi (former Italian Diplomat)
  • Budget of approximately $9 billion a year
  • Sets up refugee camps, provides food aid, medical services, etc.
  • Advocated for Refugees and in recent decades displaced persons and coordinates national and private relief aid
  • First goal - save lives
  • Second goal - seek longer term solutions -return or integration into another society
  • Major controversy over return versus resettlement

PO/IR (6 decks)

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