IR - Chapters 13-15 Flashcards
What happened in 1919 in Paris?
Delegations representing 32 of the nations of WW1 went to the Paris Peace Conference to negotiate several peace settlements
Who were the talks initially to be led by?
The Big Five - Britain, France, USA, Italy and Japan
Which of these countries withdrew from the talks though, and why?
Japan - predominantly about the fate of Europe Italy - PM Vittorio Orlando temporarily withdrew after he could not secure territorial gains for the country
Therefore, which countries were left the most victorious and influential in the negotiations?
USA, France and Britain
What was the extent of the wreckage of the war?
It was psychological as well as physical - millions had been killed or wounded, huge swathes of French and Belgian landscapes had been utterly destroyed by trench warfare and vicious fighting still continued in the east as the world leaders met in Paris. The casualty rate and destruction were deeply shocking and so allied statesmen were guided by the desire for revenge and a lasting peace from the public, who were proudly adamant that such loss should never again be tolerated
Which country experienced the most casualties in WW1?
Germany - 2 million dead and 4.2 wounded
What did the democratic nature of each of the Big Three mean?
They had to reflect the attitudes of their electorates as well as their own personal views - if the general public did not feel their interests had been represented they were likely to vote their leaders out of office. This was particularly significant in Britain, which had a General Election in December 1918 and France, who had a legislative election scheduled for late 1919
Who was Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)?
He entered politics when he saw France defeated and occupied by the Prussians. He was nicknamed “The Tiger” and had a reputation for toughness and harboured deep resentment and fear of Germany. He was the PM of France from 1917, but disliked President Poincare. He was defeated in the 1920 presidential elections and died in 1929 after predicting another war with Germany
What were the aims of Georges Clemenceau?
- Had witnessed 2 German invasions of France and viewed Germany as a dangerous power who would threaten France again later if its strength was not crippled. Amongst the French public, there was a strong desire for revenge 
- France had suffered the worst destruction and casualties on the allied side, provoking a strong desire for revenge and compensation from Germany. 25% of French male population aged 18-30 were dead or wounded
- Was sceptical of Wilson’s 14 points, believing him to be too high minded and idealistic
- Clemenceau was pragmatic and wanted Germany to be dismembered with the Rhineland made into a separate state to create a physical border between Germany and France. He was not convinced that Lloyd George and Wilson sympathised with the French fear of German invasion
- Rather than a neutral location, Clemenceau insisted the conference be held in Paris as recognition of French sacrifices in the war
Who was David Lloyd George (1863-1945)?
British PM since Dec 1916 - known for his flexibility and integrity. A liberal and had manoeuvred politically to pass progressive legislation and his pragmatism at the conference meant he acted as a conciliator between the vengeful Clemenceau and idealist Wilson. Expressed disappointment with the ToV and became a critic of the appeasement of Hitler
What were the aims of Lloyd George?
- Had been elected 1918 with slogans like “hang the Kaiser” and promises to squeeze Germany financially “until the pips squeak”. Many British people expected Germany to pay reparations as the war had cost almost a million British and empire lives. Lloyd George also wanted to make sure Germany wouldn’t threaten British naval dominance and security of empire again
- Privately, LG believed Britain would benefit from ensuring long term peace as the war had had a terrible impact on British trade - he recognised it could be a valuable trading partner if it was allowed to recover economically
- like Wilson, he believed that punishing Germany too harshly would cause it to seek revenge in the future. He was also concerned that Germany would have a communist revolution if economic conditions were poor. The aims of punishing Germany whilst ensuring war didn’t break out in the future often conflicted with each other, causing bitter arguments among peacemakers
- Like Clemenceau, LG was unenthusiastic about some of the 14 points - self-determination implied Britain would have to give up its empire
- LG acted as a mediator between C and W at the conference
- British and French leaders considered their aims to be more practical than Wilson’s, but LG agreed with US President’s aim of securing long term European peace
What were the aims of Woodrow Wilson?
- Hoped results of Peace Conference would convince voters the war had been worth fighting in - many Americans had favoured neutrality instead of involvement - treaties emerged had to be based on American ideals like freedom from foreign oppression - shaped 14 points Jan 1918
- One of the principles behind increasingly popular policy of isolationism in the US was that European wars were almost inevitable due to “old world” bitterness and rivalry - view particularly prevalent amongst Republican senators and congressmen
- Wilson was a Democrat, so his political career was at stake - a settlement providing long term peace essential
- Establishment of League of Nations important to W - hoped would prevent future conflict by setting up negotiations and arbitration between countries in the event of disputes
- Self-determination for smaller states formerly part of Habsburg, Russian and Ottoman Empires = principle guiding
What were Wilson’s 14 Points?
- Peace treaties open, no more secret alliances 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas 3. The removal of economic barriers are the establishment of free trade 4. Disarmament with just enough weapons to secure domestic safety 5. Self-determination for colonies 6. Germany must evacuate all Russian territories and allow Russia to develop politically 7. The evacuation and freedom of Belgium 8. All French territory freed and Alsace-Lorraine returned to France 9. Italy’s borders should be adjusted to take Italian nationality into account 10. Autonomy for the nationalities within the AH empire 11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated, Balkan nationalities to receive independence 12. Turkey should be consolidated as a state but the Ottoman Empire to be broken up and its nationalities given independence 13. Poland to be established as an independent state with access to the sea 14. The establishment of a general association of nations must be formed to guarantee political independence and territorial integrity for large and small states
How did the Big Three ensure that their influence was felt over the conference?
- Each of the Big Three exerted influence over the aspects of the settlement which they felt most affected the interests of their own countries - After the delegations of the 32 represented countries, the Big Three discusses the eventual TOV terms which dealt with Germany and the LON - The subsequent treaties settling disputes in Eastern Europe and Turkey were shaped by a series of compromises
Which two powers were not invited to the conference?
- Germany as the defeated side - Russia mistrusted and sidelined as a communist state
When did the Paris Peace Conference begin?
18th January 1919
Where did divisions occur between the Big Three in the agreements?
- Clemenceau demanded more security for France against Germany in the form of a barrier in the Rhineland and French control of Saar coalfields - This was rejected by Wilson and Lloyd George as it contradicted self-determination and Britain and the USA had the seas as a natural barrier against a resurgent Germany - Lloyd George predicted that by confiscating more German territory there would be a new revanchism and continued bitterness between Germany and France
What happened in March 1919?
- The negotiations had reached a stalemate and the conference appeared likely to collapse - Lloyd George issued the Fontainebleau Memorandum, setting out the extent of principles acceptable to the British
What did Lloyd George achieve with the Fontainebleau Memorandum?
- He persuaded Clemenceau to accept a more balanced treaty which would not leave Germany unable to recover economically, and convinced him to accept the League of Nations - With Clemenceau’s agreement to these key principles secured, Lloyd George then persuaded Wilson to accept the “War Guilt” clause
What were the unavoidable concerns around Europe’s borders during the talks and how were these resolved?
- The redrawing of Europe’s borders would mean some people would now find themselves part of a country they did not want to live in - The peacemakers tried to ensure protection for minorities, such as freedom of religion and language
What was the problem with self-determination for former empires?
- It did not extend to these former empires - For Germany’s former colonies, already under possession of Allies, as well as the former territories overseas of the Ottoman Empire, a system of mandates was introduced - It was widely felt that countries like Cameroon and the Samoan Islands were not yet mature and civilised enough to rule themselves, so they would be governed by Europeans until they had “matured into nationhood” - According to Wilson, mandates were unnecessary for Europeans when it came to the former Habsburg Empire
What is meant by the term “mandate”?
Territories (particularly overseas colonies) transferred to the control of a different country until they were thought capable of governing themselves
Who led the Arabian delegation?
Prince Faisal and advised by Thomas Edward Lawrence (known to posterity as Lawrence of Arabia)
How were the Arabian delegation involved in the Paris Peace Conference?
- Arrived in Paris to claim Mesopotamia - However, Lloyd George blocked their proposals in favour of British control over the region - Britain’s desire for Arabian oil and security around the Suez Canal was prioritised over the promises made to the Arabs in 1915
How were Japan involved in the Paris Peace Conference?
- Hoped their presence would secure their transition to a world power - Had been a successful wartime ally and now occupied Korea and Manchuria in China - Proposed a racial equality clause in the treaty which would end the ban on Asian immigration in force in the USA and Australia - At first this was blocked and the Japanese threatened to walk out whilst China implored the peacemakers not to compromise as Japan’s occupation of Manchuria contravened self-determination - Wilson finally agreed to Japan’s demand to prevent the conference collapsing, but the Chinese felt betrayed
Why were Italy disappointed with the Paris Peace Conference?
- They were angry by vetoed proposals - Under the 1915 Treaty of London the Italians had been promised land around the Adriatic; Wilson now opposed the idea in the name of self determination - The response of the Italian delegation was to walk out of the conference - The blocking of territorial gains gave rise to increased Italian nationalism and expansionism
What happened in May 1919?
The peacemakers wrote to Berlin to request a German delegation to receive the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Germany was given no opportunity to change the terms and had to accept them
What were the military terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
- German army allowed only 100,000 regular soldiers - Navy restricted to 6 battleships and no submarines - No conscription - No military aircraft - No armoured vehicles (e.g. tanks) - Outstanding vessels were to be scrapped or given to the Allies - Rhineland to be demilitarised and Germans not allowed to occupy it - Germany forbidden from allying with Austria
When was the Treaty of Versailles signed?
28th June 1919
What is the significance of the Rhineland?
It was a rich industrial area of Germany and bordered France
What happened at Scapa Flow in June 1919?
The German sailors scuttled (deliberately sank) much of their own fleet so they didn’t have to forfeit it to the Allies
What were the two aims of confiscating territory from Germany?
- To punish Germany - To satisfy France by giving them industrially rich land
How much of its European land did Germany lose overall?
0.1
What German territories were confiscated?
- Alsace-Lorraine (given to France) - The Saar Coalfields (seized and placed under LON control with plebiscite allowed after 15 years to allow Saarlanders to decide if they wanted to return to German nationality) - West Prussia and Posen (given to Poland to give them access to the Baltic Sea) - North Schleswig (given to Denmark) - Eupen and Malmedy (given to Belgium) - All of Germany’s overseas colonies were confiscated and put under control of LON or former allies
What was Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles?
- Known as the “war guilt clause” - Attributed blame for the war on Germany, which had to accept responsibility for “causing all the loss and damage”
What di Article 231 allow the peacemakers to do?
Demand reparations from Germany as compensation for the destruction caused by the war: - 52% would go to France - 28% would go to Britain - The remaining reparations would go to other allies, like Italy and Japan
When was the sum of reparations decided?
It was only decided in 1921
What was the eventual sum of reparations agreed?
£6.6 billion
What was the aim of the establishment of the League of Nations?
- To act as a “world government” - To prevent wars by referring international disputes to the League’s Council - Instructed to start the process of worldwide disarmament and to enforce the TOV - Germany not allowed to join until it could prove it was a “peace-loving” nation
How did the peacemakers go about making settlements in Eastern and Southern Europe and Turkey?
- It was more difficult than expected to put self-determination into practice than expected in the east, especially as many of the peacemakers had little knowledge of the complexities of the regions they were dividing up - In Eastern Europe, the establishment of new states was a fait accompli and the Allies now had the task of affirming or adjusting the exact areas of new states according to international law - Each additional treaty dealt with one of the defeated Central Powers and the sympathies of the Allies lay with the successor states of the former empires
When was the Treaty of St Germain?
10th September 1919
Which country did the Treaty of St Germain deal with?
Austria
What were the terms of the Treaty of St Germain?
- Formally separated Austria and Hungary - Punished Austria militarily by restricting its army to 30,000 soldiers and forbidding a union with Germany - Self-determination not applied to Austria - a defeated nation, not a new state - Bohemia and Moravia -> Czechoslovakia - BH -> Yugoslavia - Galicia -> Poland - Istria and South Tyrol -> Italy - South Tyrol was home to 230,000 Austrian Germans, clashing with self-determination but Wilson gave way to this to show Italy they were reasonable (1915 Treaty of London) - Had to pay reparations - Attempts to organise customs agreements between A, H and Czechoslovakia were stifled by the Supreme Economic Council - Food relief given to prevent starvation - Steiner says Austria was “too small to live but too large to die”
When was the Treaty of Neuilly signed?
27th November 1919
Which country did the Treaty of Neuilly deal with?
Bulgaria
What were the terms of the Treaty of Neuilly?
- Treated as a defeated enemy, but terms lenient compared to A and H’s - Reduced in size but on a small scale - Romania, Greece and Yugoslavia gained Bulgarian land - Lost access to the Mediterranean, affecting capacity for trade - The region of Thrace had been strongly contested by the peacemakers, but to Bulgaria’s frustration, eastern Thrace was eventually awarded to Greece - In addition, Bulgaria’s armed forces were limited to 20,000 regular troops and 13,000 military police and border guards
When was the Treaty of Trianon signed?
4th June 1920
Which country did the Treaty of Trianon deal with?
Hungary
What was the context of the creation of the Treaty of Trianon?
- Negotiated against the backdrop of political turbulence in the country - In March 1919 a communist government (the Hungarian Soviet Republic) was established under Bela Kun in Budapest - This was of deep concern to the peacemakers, who perhaps would have drawn up less harsh terms against Hungary if they were not worried about the spread of communism - The ambitions of Hungary also caused disputes with Romania and Czechoslovakia as they hoped to secure Slovakia as a part of the Republic - After months of conflict and under the threat of Allied intervention, the communist government was overthrown and a democratic coalition gov established in its place
What were the terms of the Treaty of Trianon?
- Terms were very harsh - Lost 2/3 of territory and 3 million of its people - Transylvania -> Romania - Slovakia and Ruthenia -> Czechoslovakia - Slovenia and Croatia -> Yugoslavia - Hungarian government protested against these losses and imposition of reparations, but they had no choice but to sign the treaty
When was the Treaty of Sevres signed?
August 1920
Which country did the Treaty of Sevres deal with?
Turkey
Give some context to the Treaty of Sevres
- Treatment of Turkey in the treaty reflected their long term hostility of the Allies to the Turks - Lloyd George compared their “mismanagement” of the Ottoman Empire to a “human cancer” - The Armenian Massacre in 1915-16 further convinced the peacemakers of the Ottoman government’s “evil”
What were the terms of the Treaty of Sevres?
- Ideal of self-determination ignored - territories stripped from Turkey’s control and many key strategic areas established as mandates and protectorates - Smyrna -> Greece - Iraq and Palestine -> British mandates - Lebanon and Syria -> French mandates - Morocco and Tunisia -> French protectorates - Hejaz -> independent kingdom - Turkish Straits -> LON - British, French, Italian and Greek troops occupied Turkey - Army limited to 50,700 men
When was the Treaty of Lausanne signed?
24th July 1923
Which country did the Treaty of Lausanne deal with?
Turkey
Give some context behind the Treaty of Lausanne
- The Treaty of Sevres was deeply unpopular in Turkey - Popular discontent sparked an uprising led by the Turk nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk - The Sultan, tainted by his role in signing the Treaty of Sevres, was deposed and Ataturk’s army drove Greek and British troops out of Turkey - Ataturk rejected the Sevres and the Allies agreed to renegotiate the settlement
What were the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne?
- Signed in Switzerland (a neutral country) - Returned all the territories given to Greece back to Turkey - a notable concession given the long term hostility between Greece and Turkey (war 1897 and 1912) - All foreign troops ordered to leave - Returned control of Straits back to Turkey, although they had to remain
What happened in November 1918?
The Republican Party became the majority party in the US Congress
What happened on 10th January 1920?
League of Nations commenced business
What happened in March 1920?
US senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or allow the USA to join the League of Nations
What happened in January 1921?
British and French troops occupied parts of Germany after Germany refused to pay reparations
What happened in September 1923?
Ataturk repudiated the Treaty of Sevres
Why did isolationism increase in popularity in America?
It was as a result of its war experience
How were Wilson’s 14 points received in America?
- They were generally very popular - Some, especially Republicans, were dubious about the idea of a League of Nations - Businessmen worried about the impact of free trade, favouring protectionism as the economic embodiment of isolationism
Describe the setting up of the League of Nations
- Anti war sentiment 1919 led to desire to resolve international disputes and tensions through creation of multilateral organisation - delegates of sovereign nations to discuss, debate and arbitrate disputes with member states - Wilson supported it greatly - speech to US Congress January 1918 - 14 points - “general association of nations” for “affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity” - South African Jan Smuts wrote about LON and how it might function - Paris Peace Conference 1919 - 44 countries ratified Covenant LON - new body called into being in Jan 1920 - 1st LON assembly - all member nations, 18 nation executive council - Britain, France, US, Italy and Japan to sit as permanent members of executive - LON - 42 founding members, none of central powers had invitations for membership of league
How did political developments in the immediate aftermath of the war help to secure rejection of the TOV and LON by the US Senate?
- At the very end of the war, the USA held midterm elections - These resulted in the Republican Party gaining the majority of seats in the Congress - Not only was Wilson a Democrat, but the Republicans promoted themselves as champions of isolationism, making his ideals appear increasingly at odds with American public opinion - The 66th Congress commenced in March 1919, just as Wilson was negotiating the TOV in Europe
Describe the American political structure
- US Constitution embodies the “separation of powers” principle - this keeps the legislative, executive and judicial branches separate to prevent the abuse of power - President is Head of State and is voted for in a presidential election every 4 years - Congressmen are elected to the House of Representatives every 2 years - Senators are elected to the Senate every 6 years - Midterm elections are held 2 years into a President’s term of office - Foreign treaties can be proposed by the President but need the approval of the senate, which Wilson failed to obtain in 1919
What can it mean for a Democrat President if Republicans win the majority in Congress in a midterm election (or vice versa)?
The President will find it much more difficult to gain legislative support for his policies (as was experienced by Wilson)
