Henry VII (reordered) Flashcards
What was the Star Chamber?
- a court that was responsible for prosecuting anyone who behaved in a rebellious or lawless manner
When was the Star Chamber created?
- in the Star Chamber Act in 1487
Who sat on the Star Chamber?
- the King’s most favoured advisers
Why was did the King’s advisers sit on the Star Chamber?
- this meant that it was possible to haul even the greatest noblemen before it
What else was the Star Chamber used as?
- a court of appeal
Why is the Star Chamber’s importance debated?
- there are a shortage of records
What are the arguments on the importance of the Star Chamber?
- some argue that Henry made little use of it - the definite truth is that it became more organised and significant under Wolsey
What two committees were established in Henry’s reign to deal with royal finances?
- the Star Chamber - the Council Learned in Law
How did Henry change personally with his dealing of finances?
- at first, when he was less experienced, he left the finances to the control of the Exchequer and the Treasury - By 1487, he took more direct control
How did Henry take more direct control over finances in 1487?
- moved financial administration to his private rooms in the palace, the Chamber and the Privy Chamber - this, like under Edward IV, was the most important area for financial administration
What new post did Henry create to investigate money owed from wardships?
- Surveyor of the King’s Wards
What did Henry create to monitor government spending?
- the Court of Audit
Why did Henry avoid an aggressive foreign policy?
- because this was the mistake of past kings financially and was expensive
What did contemporary writer Polydore Vergil write about people under Henry VII?
- ‘considered they were suffering not on an account of their own sins, but on account of the greed of their monarch’ - this established Henry’s reputation for being a greedy king
What are the two arguments on Henry’s methods of gathering finances?
- some argue that he was a miser, obsessed with hoarding money from every source he could find - others argue that Henry’s methods were normal, but just extremely effectively carried out
When did Henry appear to become more obsessed with his finances?
- after the death of his son and wife in the early 1500s
Why do people think that Henry became so obsessed with finances in the last years of his reign?
- his succession was not completely secure, so he wanted to ensure the Tudor dynasty was recognised as a prosperous and affluent time
How did Henry’s finances compare to other Kings in Europe at the time?
- he was nowhere near as affluent (with £113,000) as other kings - for example, the King of France had £800,000
What were Crown Lands and how did Henry increase these?
- Henry inherited all the lands held by the Houses of York and Lancaster, the Earldoms of Richmond and Warwick the Duchy of Lancaster and the Principality of Wales - Henry increased these through attainders and escheats
How did Henry VII develop Edward IV’s use of Crown Lands?
- Edward IV had improved the administration of Crown lands by introducing techniques of estate management - Reginald Bray developed these further and applied them to other lands
How did Henry’s use of Crown lands differ to Edward IV?
- he was more reluctant to grant lands to family and friends than Edward - he instead held onto them to maximise his influence and his income from leases and rents
What was the Act of Resumption?
- 1486 - this act reclaimed all Crown lands that had been granted away since the start if the Wars of the Roses - this was also sometimes used as a potential threat to noble families to keep them under control
What were feudal dues?
- these were traditional rights held by the Crown to demand money, deriving from the principle that the King was the sole owner of all the Kingdom’s land and that others held it as tennants
What were the 4 main types of payments that the King could demand from the nobility?
- Relief - Marriage - Wardship - Livery
What were relief feudal dues?
- this was paid by an heir to the King when he received his inheritance
What was marriage feudal due?
- the King’s right to arrange marriages of the daughters of tenants at a profit
What was wardship feudal due?
- this was the control of the estates of heirs under adult age, which the king was allowed to manage for his own profit
What was livery feudal due?
- this was a payment made by a ward on reaching adulthood who wanted to take control of his land
In which two ways did Henry benefit from feudal dues?
- both politically and financially - he used them for good behaviour by also benefitted from wardships of certain powerful families
How much did Henry’s income from feudal dues increase from 1487 to 1507?
- £350 to £6,000 per year
Give an example of Henry’s use of feudal dues to gain power.
- Earl of Northumberland was killed in 1489, leaving a 10 year old son - Henry was able to control and have power over this family through wardship
What position did Henry create in 1503 to help administer wardships?
- Master of the King’s Wards - This was given to John Hussey first in 1503
What were customs duties?
- these were taxes paid on goods entering or leaving the country - by the 15th century, it was traditional practice for Parliament to grant these revenues to a monarch for life
Where did money mainly come from for custom duties?
- tunnage and poundage, particularly on the sale of wool, wine and leather
What was tunnage and poundage?
- tunnage = taxes on exports - poundage - taxes on imports
How did custom duties change from Edward IV to Henry VII?
- Henry largely continued to work of Edward - he introduced certificates for coastal trade - twice updated the Book of Rates
What was the Book of Rates?
- this book set out the charges on imports and exports of a wide range of items
How much did custom duties rise by from the beginning of Henry’s reign to the end?
- start of reign £33,000 - end of reign £40,000
What were legal dues?
- money from fines and other payments made by people appearing before the King’s courts
Where did legal dues come from?
- payments came from both common law courts and the special courts operated by the Royal Council
How did Henry change the amounts of legal dues?
- he increased the use fines and attainders - for example, William Stanley brought an immediate payment of £9000 in 1495 and then £1000 per year after that
What were bonds and regconisances?
- these were payments made as a guarantee of good behaviour
How did Henry administer Bonds and recognisances?
- he demanded from those whose loyalty was suspect, such as Yorkist supporters - he also applied this to merchants who owned custom duties
How did Henry improve his finances through bonds and recognisances?
- he used this to both gain finances and maintain control
What court was created to maintain control of bonds and recognisances?
- Council Learned in Law
What were loans and benevolences?
- these were the King’s right to ask for financial help in particular emergencies
Who organised the loans and benevolences and who paid them?
They were organised by the royal council. and they were requested from both individuals and institutions, such as town corporations
How much did the King raise in 1491 and for what reason?
- he raised £48,000 from loans and benevolences - this was for the War in Brittany - £9000 was contributed from the City of London
What were feudal dues in extraordinary revenue?
- these were based on the same claims as in ordinary revenue, but related to a single extraordinary occasion
What extraordinary forms of feudal dues was the King entitle to?
- gifts for special occasions, such as when one of his sons was knighted or when a daughter married - these gifts were paid for by leading nobles and parliament was also expected to make a grant on behalf of the people it represented
How did Henry fully exploit the extraordinary feudal dues?
- he received £30,000 from parliament for the knighthood of the (then dead) Prince Arthur - he also increased his demands from nobles who had tried to save money by being ‘in distrait of knighthood’
What were clerical taxes?
- these were special taxes which the King could levy on the Church
How did Henry secure clerical taxes? What problems were there with this method?
- the clergy were exempt from paying taxes to Parliament, so this was the only way of getting money from the church - it often came in the form of a voluntary gift
How did Henry’s use of clerical taxes change from previous monarchs?
- the amount of gifts he received was widely similar to previous monarchs - he used his right to appoint leading churchmen to raise money by selling offices - for example, he raised £3000 for the post of Archdeacon of Buckingham - this practice was called ‘simony’, which was banned however was widely practiced
What were parliamentary taxes?
- these were special grants of taxes by Parliament to finance royal policies such as military action in Europe or Scotland
How was parliamentary taxes administered?
- in either ‘tenths’ or ‘fifteenths’, and were taxes on the value of moveable property - Henry also tried a form of income tax, but this was hated and soon abandoned
How did Henry’s use of parliamentary tax cause unpopularity?
- it sparked 2 rebellions, the Cornish in 1497 and the Yorkshire in 1489 - he avoided parliamentary taxes as much as possible
What were the main sources of royal income?
- Crown lands - Profits from feudal dues and royal prerogative - Customs revenue - Pensions from other powers - Profits of justice - Extraordinary revenue
How did Francis Bacon’s ‘History of the Reign of Henry VII’ present Henry and his finances?
- It presented Henry VII as a miserly king who begrudged throwing money away like many other contemporary rulers, transforming finances to leave a large amount of money to his son
What was the revenue from Crown Lands at the start of Henry’s reign, how did this change at the end of his reign?
- Start - £12,000 - End £42,000
How does Christine Carpenter regard Henry’s income from Crown lands?
- impressive - this is significant as Carpenter is very critical of many aspects of Henry’s Kingship
Why did Crown revenue drop at the start of Henry’s reign?
- they dropped because lands were collected and administered through the inefficient Court of Exchequer - perhaps shows that Henry was inexperienced in finance
What did Henry decide to do in 1492 regarding finances?
- reverted the Edward’s system of administration through the chamber
What was Edward’s system of administration that Henry reverted to?
- finances were dealt with through the royal household rather than through an administrative department - this allowed Henry to have effective treasurers of the Chamber, such as Sir Thomas Lovell and Sir John Heron
What 3 problems did Henry face when taking the throne?
- nobles had too much power - made them a threat - crown had an uneven distribution over the kingdom (limited control in the north) - the crown had poor finances after the wars of the roses
What role did the surveyor of the King’s wards have?
- investigate money owed to Henry VII from wardship
What was the Court of Order?
- this was a place to measure government spending
Why did the nobles prove a problem for Henry and what measure did he take overall against them?
- they had too much power and influence - instead of rewarding the nobles to ensure loyalty, Henry decided to force them to support him by showing them the unwelcome consequences of opposition
Why was nobles having money a problem?
- they had small private armies (mercenaries) - could generate their own income from rent and leases
What three factors did the nobility depend on for independence?
- land - wealth - support - Henry directly attacked all three of these through his financial policy
What were attainders?
- these were special laws passed by parliament that allowed someone to be declared guilty of treason without trial - these would take away finances and titles from the person in question, leaving them in no position of power or authority
Which men did Henry first give attainders to?
- those who opposed him at the Battle of Bosworth
Did Henry reverse attainders?
- yes, if he felt that it would benefit and increase loyalty of the person attained
How many attainders did Henry pass in his time as King?
- 138
How many attainders did Henry reverse in his time as King?
53328
How man attainders were passed in the final years of Henry’s reign? What does this show?
- 51 were passed from 1504-09 - this shows how Henry became increasingly insecure and paranoid at the end of his reign
What else did Henry sometimes require when reversing an attainder, can you give an example of this?
- often required a sum of money to reverse an attainder - for example, Thomas Tyrell had to pay £1,738 for the reversal of his and his father’s attainders
What were Henry’s feelings towards the distribution of lands as a reward?
- He disliked this policy as he was concerned that he would make a new group of nobles that threatened his power.
By how much did the ‘noble’ population decrease by in Henry’s reign?
- fell by 1/4
What happened to vacant lands from attainders/death?
- Henry claimed them, making him the largest landowner in the country
How did Henry safely employ royal agents to look after local communities?
- he employed people who were lower down the social scale, as they were less dependent on him and did not have extensive lands in the area
What was retaining?
- the act of keeping personal staff for ‘household servants’ - in reality these were personal armies or gangs of enforcers
What law was passed in 1485 to reduce retaining?
- He passed a law in Parliament saying that one could not retain illegally
What did Henry do in 1504 to reduce retaining?
- passed an act requiring all nobles to obtain a special license before they could retain larger numbers of men - there were severe penalties if this was broken
What penalties did Henry introduce for illegal retainers?
- a fine of £5 per month per illegal retainer
How did nobles avoid the new laws against retaining?
- they found new ways to avoid getting a license - for example, they would cover up wages they had paid to servants so that no one knew exactly how many men were being retained
What were bonds and how did Henry use them?
- these were financial debts owed to the crown that would ensure loyalty - Henry forced nobles to agree to behave themselves or face a ruinous fine
What percentage of the nobility were held under bonds in Henry’s reign?
- two thirds
Give an example of someone who held a bond.
- Lord Burgavenny - He was convicted in 1507 of illegally retaining 471 men, giving him a fine of £70,000 - Henry placed this debt under a bond to repay £5000 over 10 years - He also gave him the instruction that he could not step foot in his family lands until the debt was settles - This meant that Henry both raised money from someone he did not trust, and also obliged him to keep in the King’s favour or risk ruin
How did Henry enforce these financial policies?
- through the creation of the Council Learned in Law
What was the Council Learned in Law?
- this was an offshoot from the main Royal Council which dealt initially with the King’s feudal rights, but later controlled all financial matters
What was special about members of the Council Learned in Law?
- they all had legal training and acted both as investigators and as judges in cases where there was suspicion of noble not paying their proper dues
Who was the first leader of the Council Learned in Law?
- Reginald Bray unitl 1503
Who led the Council Learned in Law in the final years of Henry’s reign?
- Edmund Dudley and Richard Empson - They were hated and feared
Which areas of the country were most difficult to control?
- Those most distant from London - these needed the presence of local nobility
How did Henry control areas that were more settled?
- through JPs, who were responsible for public order, the implementation of laws and dispensing justice to criminals brought before them - 4 times a year they met at the Quarter Sessions to try those accused of more serious crimes (apart from treason which was left to the crown)
Who ruled the North on Henry’s behalf?
- after the death of Northumberland in 1489, the Earl of Suffolk - Henry placed him here because he had no support, lands or a strong base to rival Henry from
What were the three main functions of Henry VII’s council?
1- to advise the king 2- to administer the realm on the king’s behalf 3 - to make legal judgements
How many men were recorded as having attended the council during this reign?
227
How many men were in Henry VII’s working council?
37049
What were the three main types of councillor?
- Members of the nobility 2. Churchmen 3. Laymen
What were the three types of councillor - give examples of each.
Members of the nobility - Lord Daubeney and Dynham Churchmen - Richard Fox and John Morton Laymen - Sir Reginald Bray
Define magnate
In this context, a member of the higher ranks of the nobility
On what occasions would council members meet separately?
To discuss and deal with key administrative concerns, for example Bray and Dudley sometimes met in London to deal with legal matters when the King was with his other councillors elsewhere.
Who did Historian David Loades argue was Henry’s ‘most influential adviser’?
His mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort
What was the Great Council?
The Great Council, not to be confused with the normal council, was a meeting of the House of Lords without the House of Commons. It had no set function, but often dealt with war or rebellion. It was not a permanent body and only met 5 times in Henry’s reign.
What was the function of the Council Learned?
To maintain the king’s revenue and exploit his prerogative rights
When did the Council develop and who was its first leader?
In the second half of Henry’s reign, at first under the leadership of Reginald Bray.
How does John Guy describe the Council Learned?
As a ‘specialist board’
Why was the council learned considered ‘shady’
It was not a recognised court of law, and its subjects had no right to appeal its decision.
What does historian Thomas Penn say about the Council Learned?
As something that cause ‘fear, frustration and anger, as it bypassed the normal legal system’
Who was Bray’s associate in the Council Learned?
Richard Empson
Who led the Council Learned with Empson after Bray’s death in 1503?
Edmund Dudley
Who were the feared leaders of the Council Learned that created enemies in England?
Edmund Dudley and Richard Empson
What happened to Empson and Dudley after the King’s death?
Bishop Fox and Sir Thomas Lovell, who were some of the King’s key advisors. After Henry VII’s death in 1509, they removed Empson and Dudley from their positions to the sound of rejoicing in the streets.
What did the Tudor’s rely heavily upon?
The Royal Court, which was the centre of government
What was the royal court’s function?
- it housed the royal chamber - where the King could be found at any time - it’s where advancements in position could be attained - where the support of the king and other influential figures could be attained
What was the function of the household proper?
It was responsible for looking after the king, courtiers and guests that were being entertained. These personal catering requirements were seen to by Lord Steward
What was the Chamber?
the private areas of the court; also a key department for the efficient collection of royal revenues
What was the Lord Chamberlain?
An experienced nobleman and member of the king’s council, and a personal friend of the king.
Why did the Lord Chamberlain have so much political power?
he had administrative and political power, often speaking for the monarch in an official capacity, and was also responsible for organising court ceremonies.
What was the Privy Chamber?
comprising the close personal servants of the monarch; its members had direct access to the monarch and therefore could influence him or her more directly.
How was Perkin Warbeck involved with the Privy Chamber?
The position of Lord Chamberlain gained considerable trust. In 1495, Henry’s Lord Chamberlain Sir William Stanley, was involved in a treasonable plot with Perkin Warbeck.
What did Henry create in response to this betrayal?
The Privy Chamber, a private chamber to which the king could retreat, protected by his most intimate servants.
How did this remodel affect the court?
This changed the character of the court, thus making it more difficult for those who were out of favour to regain the kings support.
What was the function of parliament?
To pass law as and grant taxation to the crown
What was parliament’s subsidiary function?
A means in which local issues could be passed on by MPs to the King’s officials
How many parliaments did Henry call?
7 parliaments 5 in his first 10 years and 2 in the last 14 years
What were Henry’s early parliaments for?
Issues of national security and raising revenue.
What were Henry’s later Parliaments for?
Granted extraordinary revenue, enabling the king to go to war.
What were fifteenths and tenths?
A standard form of taxation calculated in the 14th century, paid by towns and boroughs to the Crown.
How much revenue did Henry gain from fifteenths and tenths?
£203,000
What did Henry’s final Parliament in 1504 achieve?
Limited the demand for extraordinary revenue
What does the research carried out by Historian Paul Cavill suggest about Parliament in Henry’s reign?
On the whole, parliament operated effectively, and the king respected its decisions. There were a number of private acts passed in response to local demands for improvement.
Why was maintenance of law and order a huge responsibility for the King?
Problems with law and order could lead to uprisings or rebellions, which could threaten Henry’s authority
What was the first thing Henry relied on to keep law and order in England?
Trusted members of the nobility, which exercised power on his behalf across the country
Who were some key members of the nobility that aided Henry in law and order?
In the northwest - the Stanleys Northeast and Yorkshire - Earl of Northumberland
What problem did Henry face with the death of the Earl of Northumberland? How did Henry solve this?
- Northumberland, who was killed in a tax revolt, was key to the maintaining of law and order in the North. - To solve this, Henry decided on the risky strategy of releasing the Earl of Surrey from the tower and placing him in charge. - He sent the known supporter of Richard III to an area where Richard’s supporters lived, but this worked as they respected him and he ruled there for ten years
What did Henry rely on at a local level to maintain law and order?
Justices of the Peace (JPs)
What was the role of JPs?
JPs replaced the traditional sheriffs on a county-by-county basis, and maintained law and order by being responsible for: - tax assessments - alehouse regulation - the investigation of complaints against local officials - the maintenance of law and order
What were bonds and recognisances?
A debt that was owed to the king and had to be paid if the subject broke the vow of good behaviour.
Why did the King use Bonds and Recognisances?
to enforce order and obedience, and defeat the law, a system that can be regarded as morally dubious.
What was the 5 things that church courts were responsible for?
- Church administration - Offences committed by the clergy - Proving of wills - issues related to marriage - ‘moral’ offences
What were manor courts responsible for?
- landholding - rights and responsibilities of landowners and tenants - use of common land - responsibilities for drainage and land issues
What were Borough courts responsible for?
- medieval trading standards - specific judicial rights granted by royal charter
What were the King’s court at county level responsible for?
- Assizes: held twice a year to deal with major criminal and civil cases - quarter sessions: held 4 times a year, presided over by JPs to deal with less important criminal cases and civil and administrative affairs - Special commissions - dealt with major issues such as rebellion
What was the responsibilities of the King’s common law courts?
- King’s bench: superior criminal jurisdiction - Common pleas: dealt with major civil cases - Exchequer: dealt with issues regarding royal revenues
What was the responsibility of the chancery?
Exercised jurisdiction on the basis of equity rather than a strict reading of the common law
What was the religion of England and who’s jurisdiction was in under?
-Catholicism -The Pope in Rome
How many parish churches were there?
Over 8,000
What were guilds and confraternities?
Voluntary associations of individuals treated to promote works of christian charity and devotion
How did the Church help social and political elites stay in control?
-Encouraged good behaviour and obedience -Stressed the values of community
What opportunity did the Church provide for Cardinal Wolsey?
The opportunity for social advancement through the attainment of high office in Church and state
What was the relationship between the Church and the state?
Erastian
How many provinces were there and who controlled them?
-2, York and Canterburry -Archbishops
How many diocese were there and who controlled them?
-17 -Bishops
What did senior clergy often do?
Participate in politics
Which two churchmen had the most political influence?
John Morton and Richard Foox
Which office was dominated by clergymen?
Chancellor
Which clergymen were members of the house of lords?
Abbots and bishops
What were the seven sacraments?
-Baptism -Confirmation -Marriage -Anointing of the sick -Penance -Holy Orders -Eucharist
Why was mass important?
-It was a sacrament performed by the priest on behalf of the community -It was a sacred ritual in which the whole community participated
Why did benefactors leave money ro chantries?
-To benefit their religious experience -To benefit the religious experience of the community
What king of things did confraternities pay for?
-funerals -paying chaplains -maintaining church fabric -charitable donations
What sort of things did the wealthier confraternities do?
-Ran schools -Maintained bridges, highways and sea walls -rebuilt church spires
Why did people go on pilgrimages?
To gain relief from purgatory
What was the most popular pilgrimage site?
The tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury
Why were pilgrimages so common?
They were accesible because there were many pilgrimage sites
What happened on Rogation Sunday?
The community would walk round the parish boundaries to pray for its protection
What does Rogation Sunday show?
The importance of the parish as the key focus of local community for ordinary people
what percentage of adult males were monks?
0.01
How many monasteries and nunneries were there?
750
What was the oldest and most common religious order?
The Benedictines
Where were a large proportion of the monks in the larger religious houses drawn from?
The wealthier parts of society
What did friars do?
They worked among lay people
How were friars payed?
Largely by charitable donations
What were the three main orders of friars?
-The Dominicans -The Franciscans -The Augustinians
Where were friars recruited. from in the social scale?
Lower down than large monasteries
How wealthy were nunneries?
Most were relatively poor
