IP Cards Flashcards
Pakistan aggression
Aggressive stance and constant infiltration of Kashmir
1st War incited and supported the Poonch rebels to rebel against the Maharajah Singh of Kashmir - occupied 1/3 of Kashmir
2nd War 1965 Operation Gibraltar saw incursion of guerrillas to incite rebellion against Kashmir Valley Muslims gaining over 350 square km of land - disobeying Karachi agreements set out by the UN
3rd war preemptive airstrikes on Indian airbases started the 1971 war
Fuelled by Two-Nation Theory wherein Muslim majority meant that Kashmir should be a part of Pakistan
Religious significance as well
India intransigence
Involved after Hari Singh’s plea for help regarding rebels from Pakistan and stubbornly held on to this as India’s legitimate hold over India due to Instruction of Accession > BUT it was agreed that a plebiscite would be held + UN later in Resolution 47 also proposed a plebiscite. India never held a plebiscite > integrated Kashmir into Union of India in 1957
Even arrested and jailed pro-plebiscite Kashmir PM Shiekh Mohammed Abdullah > replaced by series of submissive, non-secessionist regimes > active manipulation of politics
CA: Issue of Kashmir was in limbo as Pakistan wanted to replace Azad Kashmir troops with Pakistan personnel while India wanted withdrawal of all Azad Kashmir troops before it would enter talks of demilitarising
India intransigence regarding peace processes as the conflict progressed.
Refusal to hold negotiations with Pakistan PM in 1958 (convinced that useless since US supported)
Tashkent Jan 1966 - attempt to discuss political issues bilaterally - failed and were non-lasting due to “trust deficit”
Retaliatory invasion of West Pakistan in 2nd war - did not heed resolution 209 and 210 and needed pressure from multiple countries like Canada, Egypt, Yugoslavia and UK - firm 211 on Sep 20 1965
Ineffectiveness of the UN
Lack of legislative authority - ineffective - emboldened both parties as they were certain UN powerless to intervene
UNCIP 1948 - no legislative power - tried to use demilitarisation and plebiscite to resolve - 1 Jan 1949 ceasefire ended the first war but plebiscite never held - Kashmir remain restive part of India
Resolution 91 and 122 which imposed ceasefire ignored by both
UNMOGIP restricted to just observing
1958 104 meetings without reaching solution
UN lack of lasting solution
Entrenched differences = inability to commit to a persistent state of peace between the two over Kashmir - tensions > violate any bilateral agreements achieved in moments of thaw in relations
Karachi Agreement 27 July 1949 stopped military action but no political reconciliation: anomalies of Kashmir given no physical demarcation of borders and glacial terrain near China inaccessible - deemed “no man’s land” but was quickly taken advantage of as both India and Pakistan set up military outposts and raided across the area > UNMOGIP unable to handle - 1965 Operation Gibraltar violate and start war
Tashkent agreement 10 Jan 1966 intervention from both US and USSR > supposed to be framework for lasting peace and normalisation but bilateral talks in March to July unsuccessful due to “trust deficit” on both sides and deeming concessions as inadequate
Ideology
Pakistan Two-Nation Theory: separating India based on Hinduism and Islam and thus entitled Pakistan as a autonomous Muslim state, and thus had a rightful claim to Kashmir > led to fierce attacks in 1st and 2nd war in attempt to acquire Kashmir. 3rd IP war was also based on ideology as Bengali (East Pakistan) that were looking to break away from Pakistan. Pakistan fierce defence through Operation Searchlight to defend basis of separation by religion. This was aggravated by India supporting Bengali nationalism to exploit on this point > trained and provided sanctuary to Bengali guerilla force - Pakistan airstrikes on India start war
India secular nation building > wanted to integrate Kashmir as it believed essential to prove that India was able to manage a Muslim-majority state; failure to do so would act as trigger for powerful centrifugal forces in other parts of the country, potentially emboldening other nationalist or separatist movements
India and Pakistan’s national ideology and religion: Hinduism and Islam both ask of their followers belief without question > inflexibility and intolerable to other religions. India and Pakistan separated almost exclusively by religion > causes Pakistan to emphasise its Islamic character
Fought over Kashmir for differences in religious significance in Kashmir:
Hindu: Kashmir was origin of Brahmins, highest of the Indian caste system
Muslims: Kashmir was foretaste of Muslim heaven
Religious fervour was cause of conflict in 1947 Ministry of Poonch cited Maharajah’s perceived insensitivity towards Muslim majority resulted in their open rebellion that directly caused the IP war
1963 disappearance of hair of Prophet Muhammad in Hazratbal shrine - violent demonstrations of Muslims on Hindus
Kashmir territorial significances
Economics
Kashmir had Indus and Jhelum rivers passing through — Pakistan main source of fresh water > importance heightened when India cut off portions of Pakistan water supply devastating agriculture
For India: Vale of Kashmir near the Great Himalayan mountain ranges hold tremendous wealth as tourists site — important source of income
Bulk of both India and Pakistan depended on waters from Kashmir for their agricultural production — state which holds upper riparian had strategic advantage to cut off water supply of the other - livelihood of people affected — particularly important given growing population
CA: Indus water treaty 1960 under the auspices of the World Bank: India get east, Pakistan get west
Strategic for India
Kashmir as viable platform for both to invade - possible military and strategic threat; Pakistan military security compromised if Indian troops stationed along Kashmir border
On Karakoram pass (main route between southern Himalayas and west China) - common border with Pakistan and China and every land invasion of India had come from Kashmir region. Greater significance of defeat to China in Sino-Indian war 1962 - view Kashmir as important buffer zone in case of invasion.
Superpowers in IP conflict
Active provision of arms that facilitated the ability of acting parties to engage in combat
US-Pakistan 1954 military pact provide arms and training in line with Cold War program to stand up against USSR. Pakistan became dependent on US aid in its invasion of Kashmir. In fact 1965 Operation Gibraltar was launched under the impression that the US would support it.
USSR provision of India with arms strengthen India military might and allowed it to maintain supremacy against Pakistan: Dec 1955 wholeheartedly supported India claim on Kashmir and Jammu + program of econ and tech assistance > 5x the size of military of British Raj with T55 tanks and BRDM personal carriers
India-USSR 1971 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation: military pact guaranteed Soviet help should India went to war with Pakistan again > provocation of Pakistan through Bengali nationalist movement in 1971
1972 veto for ceasefire in East Pakistan > did not prevent India from advancing into the area
CA: Not consistent involvement - Not involved in first war, US embargo on arms for both IP after second war in 1965 - greatly hurting Pakistan ambitions
USSR provided necessary good offices needed for long-term settlement by bringing both together for Tashkent talks in 1966.
Kashmiri role
Maharajah Singh standstill with India and Pakistan as he desired for Kashmir to remain independent, contributing to Muslim uprising in the Poonch and eventually Pakistani invasion, which led him to hastily cede Kashmir to India through instruction of accession with agreement that plebiscite would be held afterward
CA: uprising in the Poonch was bolstered by activists from the Muslim activists from the Muslim League in Pakistan
British decol
“Divide and rule” policy when ruling India as a colony - categorised them according to religion and ethnicity, treated each group differently, forming a clear divide between people of different religions. This impeded any development of mutual understanding and respect, thus creating a suspicion between Hindus and Muslims in India which have been embedded within their ideology and beliefs > By early 1900s nationalist movements called for independence but were usually split along religious and sectarian lines with strands of Hinduism and Muslim nationalism emerging > formed the basis of contention between the two religions
Haphazard mountbatten line that divided India and Pakistan based on religious and political lines, leading to fierce competition between the two to incorporate princely states. Though most of the 562 princely states could opt to join either India or Pakistan, it was fairly obvious for most as they were on clear sides of either partition. however Kashmir was sandwiched between India and Pakistan and was thus highly contested
The partition based on religion was also flawed as many found themselves on the wrong side of the border and resulted in mass migration and violence. The partition triggered one of the largest mass migrations in history, displacing millions of people and exacerbating communal tensions between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. The violence that erupted during this period laid the groundwork for further hostilities, particularly in border areas like Punjab and Kashmir.This violence heightened mistrust between the two new nations and contributed to the perception that the partition was incomplete or unjust, particularly in Kashmir. Both India and Pakistan viewed the control of Kashmir as vital to securing their national identity, which contributed to the outbreak of hostilities.
