Congo Flashcards
Belgians
Economic value of Congo to Belgians:
Belgians investments concentrated in Katanga which accounted for 75% of Congo’s mineral output
Society Generale and UHMK pressured Belgian interference
11 July 1960 secession Belgians disarmed all non-Katangese soldiers and expelled them from the province, retaining only natives to serve in Katanga Gendermarie
Tshombe appointed Belgian citizens to lead Katanga civil administration
Support allowed Katangese secession to continue until resolution in 1963
Belgians’ trash decolonisation: triggered and worsened Congo due to refusal to leave
General Emile Janssens 4th July 1960 “Before independence = after independence” - white soldiers to remain in command - enraged them since felt like denied fruits of independence - Force Publique Mutiny 5 July 1960
Support Katanga secession with military intervention - domino effect of South Kansai secession (continued and sustained)
UN&UNSG
Dag limitations of UN and policy of neutrality + Lumumba hostile due to their refusal to help him restore Katanga > unable to facilitate discussions/negotiations with Lumumba
Hammarskjold private meeting with Tshombe > anger Lumumba further > withdraw all non-African troops, including ONUC - attacks against Canadian soldiers and UN security personnel > escalate as even peacekeepers were attacked
Hammarskjold Sep 1960 closure of airports that forestalled USSR support for Congo > USSR and Congo accuse of breach of neutrality and impartiality > All-Africa People’s Conference demand return of UN protracted conflict
CA: U Thant later more decisive and assertive - Tshombe violate Dec 1961 ceasefire > authorise ONUC to take over Elizabethville > attack airbases and aircraft + rejected US calls for negotiation > secession end by Jan 1963
CA: Depend on local leaders cooperation - proposal for UN to take over Congo to restore economy, rejected by local leaders. Tshombe violation of Dec 1961 ceasefire
UN inability to facilitate solution > UNSC Res 143: ONUC to fill power vacuum when Belgians withdrew BUT res 146 undermined: impartial and refrain from interfering in domestic politics + refusal to support Lumumba to use ONUC to restore Katanga > inaction allowed situation to continue
Operation Rum Punch: arrested foreign military personnel but difficult to deport as foreign diplomats reneged on promises - allowing hundreds of mercenaries to stay in Congo
Operation Morthar resulted in significant fighting between ONUC and katangese troops and it was only in 1963 that Katanga and South Kasai secessions were suppressed
Local leaders
Internal power struggle between politicians factions
Katanga fuelled by Tshombe who actively asked for political and military aid from the Belgians, and exploited the unrest amidst the Force Publique Mutiny to gain power and position by seceding, dividing the nation and creating foundations for a prolonged conflict + created chain of events that pushed Lumumba to seek assistance from US and USSR - further complicating with Cold War conflict being embroiled
Persistent domestic factionalism post Katanga secession between unitarists and federalists as local leaders sought to enrich and maintain links of patronage. However their rivalry bred instability and skyrocketing inflation and disillusioned masses as radicals like Pierre Mulele and Christopher Gbenye starting the Kwilu and Simba rebellion respectively as Lumumbists formed the CNL in October 1963. By November 1964, the CNL had control over more than half of the Congo, with key victory being the capture of Stanleyville.
Cold War politics (esp early years up to 1961)
US wary of Lumumba open stance as pro-Communist, USSR attempt to exploit the chance to enter and potentially spread Communist influence in the African sphere
US push away Lumumba and denied him of aid fearing that they would involve the USSR and Congo in Cold War politics > ironically pushed Lumumba towards the USSR > more hands-on after 17 July 1960 when Lumumba declared that he would reach out to USSR for aid (USSR pledged 2.5 million rubles of economic aid motivation as above) > CIA help Mobutu launch coup to overthrow Lumumba on 5 Sep 1960, also assisted in assassination of Lumumba in Sep 1961 (aggravated conflict as the country was thrown into a state of unrest and chaos, becoming a hotbed for insurgencies like Simba and Kwilu)
1964 Nov Operation Dragon Rouge rescued over 1800 hostages from the Simba rebellion > turning point and eventual resolution of the insurgency
Leaders’ persistent political factionalism
Fail to control Kasai and Katanga, Lumumba and Kasavubu rift became greater as both attempted to remove each other (president and prime minister) from power. Neither were able to garner enough support from Parliament hence both attempts were nullified, resulting in a political deadlock which was not productive to solving the conflict. After Lumumba’s assassination, Mobutu takes over in 14 Sept with coup. However, the resulting power vacuum saw the rise of insurrections and rebellions by Mulele and Gbenye from 1963-64
CA: UN inability to protect Lumumba + US manipulation and orchestration
Economic value of Congo
Manifested in both local and foreign actors
Katanga rich in copper and cobalt and other minerals - extremely lucrative
Locals get tax revenue and foreign exchange, central govt was crippled without the large investments and revenue generated from Katanga mining operations > secession of Katanga would cause loss in revenue to Katangese officials > forming basis to right for reunification
Externally, by 1952, 5 Belgian holding companies owned 70% of all Congo investments
US American financial groups had interests in Belgium and financed Belgian colonial development projects
UK also had 5% share in UHMK
Econ aims greatly motivated both
Ethnic nationalism
Tensions between Lula-Baluba ethnic groups arising from deep-seated perceptions of prestige and colonial favouritism.
Baluba favoured by Belgians due to greater receptiveness to colonial tutelage > Lulua felt discriminated and marginalised > Lulua-Baluba War 1959 > intensifying ethnic nationalism > Kalonji opportunist led MNC-K faction to advocate for a separate homeland for the Baluba in South Kasai
Similarly in Katanga where Tshombe exploited ethnic divisions for own gain > secessions
