Introuctions / Terminology

Question 1

One technique used to study the brain

Answer 1

One technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI allows researchers to examine the structure and activity of the brain non-invasively by utilizing strong magnetic fields and radio waves. It provides detailed images of the brain’s anatomy and can also capture changes in brain activity.

Maguire 2000

Question 2

Localization

Answer 2

Localization of brain function refers to the theory that a given function is localized in specific areas of the brain. This essentially means that certain brain structures or brain regions are the genesis of particular behaviors; localization recognizes that the brain operates through interconnected networks, where multiple regions collaborate to support complex cognitive functions.

Maguire 2000

Question 3

Neuroplasticity

Answer 3

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s remarkable ability to change and reorganize its structure and function in response to various experiences, learning, and environmental factors. It involves the formation of new neural connections, the strengthening of existing ones, and the pruning of unused synapses. Neuroplasticity plays a fundamental role in shaping brain development, adapting to injuries, and optimizing cognitive functions throughout life.

maguiree 2000

Question 4

Neural Networks

Answer 4

Neural networks are networks of interconnected neurons in the brain that facilitate communication and information processing. The formation of neural networks involves a dynamic process influenced by environmental inputs and experiences. During development and throughout life, synaptic pruning eliminates unused synapses while strengthening connections between active neurons. This process refines the neural networks, optimizing the efficiency of information processing.

Maguire 2000

Question 5

Neural pruning

Answer 5

Neural pruning is a vital process in the development and optimization of the brain’s neural connections. This process involves the selective elimination of unused synapses and the strengthening of active connections. Neural pruning allows the brain to refine and optimize neural circuitry, enhance efficiency and allocation of resources, specialization, and allows for the adaptation and shaping of the brain based on individual experiences.

Maguire 2000

Question 6

Neurotransmitter

Answer 6

Neurotransmitters are the body’s chemical messengers which transmit information from one neuron to another in the brain and body. They are of great research interest to psychologists and neuroscientists because they can turn on or turn off neurons which is what gives rise to human behavior like mood, motivation, memory and learning. Serotonin is a key neurotransmitter in the brain associated with many key cognitive functions like emotion, perception, appetite, sleep and memory.

Crocket et al 2010

Question 7

Role antagonist

Answer 7

Antagonist molecules play a crucial role in reducing the effects of neurotransmitters by blocking receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron, thereby diminishing the neurotransmitter’s impact. Citalopram is an example of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, which means it acts as an antagonist: citalopram work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin, thereby increasing serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft and prolonging its effects. By doing so, citalopram enhances the availability and activity of serotonin in the brain, which can have various effects on mood, emotion, and behavior.

Crocket et al 2010

Question 8

Inhibitory or excitatory synapses

Answer 8

Neurotransmitters that compel a neuron to activate are referred to as excitatory, as they excite or stimulate the postsynaptic neuron to fire; Neurotransmitters that ‘turn off’ a neuron or reduce its likelihood of firing are referred to as inhibitory because they serve to inhibit or prevent the postsynaptic receiving neuron from firing . However importantly, some neurotransmitters, such as Serotonin, can be both excitatory and inhibitory depending on the neural network which they are interacting with.

Crocket et al 2010

Question 9

use of one research method in one study of the brain and behavior. Revisa creo q hay algo mal

Answer 9

In the field of brain and behavior research, various research methods are utilized to gain insights into the complex relationship between brain functioning and behavior. One prominent research method is a repeated-measures double-blind laboratory experiment, which allows researchers to carefully control variables and investigate cause-effect relationships. This method involves exposing participants to different conditions and measuring their responses.

Crocket et al 2010

Question 10

Hormone

Answer 10

Hormones are chemical messengers released from endocrine glands that influence the nervous system to regulate various physiological and behavioral processes in humans.
There are 50 different hormones in the human body and are all collectively responsible for a variety of communication purposes and functions. The effect of hormones on human behavior can be profound, shaping our emotions, motivations, and social interactions. One hormone of interest is oxytocin, often referred to as the “love hormone,” known for its role in social bonding and trust. Oxytocin is produced in the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland.

Baumgartner et al 2008

Question 11

Pheromones

Answer 11

Pheromones are chemical messengers that are emitted into the environment from the body where they can then activate specific physiological or behavioral responses in other individuals of the same species. They play a crucial role in communication and social interactions among animals, including humans.

Cutler, Friedmann, and McCoy (1998).

Question 12

Role of one gene

Answer 12

Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for the development, functioning, and behavior of organisms. They play a crucial role in shaping various aspects of human behavior, including personality traits, cognitive abilities, and susceptibility to certain disorders. One behavior that has been extensively studied in relation to genetics is major depressive disorder (MDD).

Kendler et al 2006 in major depressive disorder

Question 13

Genetic similarities

Answer 13

Genetic similarities, particularly in terms of heritability, play a crucial role in facilitating psychologists’ study of the relationship between genes and behavior. Heritability refers to the extent to which genetic variation contributes to the variation in a specific trait within a population. By examining individuals with genetic similarities, such as monozygotic twins who share virtually identical DNA, psychologists can isolate the influence of genetic factors from environmental factors, allowing for a deeper understanding of the genetic basis of behavior. One study that exemplifies the utilization of genetic similarities and heritability in investigating the relationship between genes and behavior is the research conducted by

Kendler et al. (2006) (MDD).

Question 14

Kinship studies or twin studies

Answer 14

Kinship studies and twin studies are essential research methods utilized in the study of the inheritance of behavior. Heritability, defined as the extent to which the variation in a behavioral trait within a population is attributable to genetic differences, serves as a key concept in these investigations. Kinship studies examine the similarities in behavioral traits among individuals who share different degrees of genetic relatedness, while twin studies specifically focus on comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins to estimate the heritability of behavioral traits.

Kendler et al. (2006) - Twin

Question 15

One research method in one study of genes and behavior

Answer 15

In the field of genes and behavior research, different research methods are employed to explore the influence of genetic factors on various aspects of human behavior. One such method is interviews, which allows researchers to gather detailed information directly from participants. In the study conducted by Kendler et al. (2006), the researchers aimed to examine the role of genetics in major depressive disorder (MDD) by utilizing interviews as a research method.

In Kendler et al.’s study, interviews were conducted with approximately 15,000 complete twin pairs listed in the national Swedish Twin Registry. Trained interviewers carried out telephone interviews between March 1998 and January 2003 using a structured protocol.

Question 16

Evolutionary explanation

Answer 16

Evolutionary explanations of behavior seek to understand the adaptive significance of specific behaviors in the context of human evolution. These explanations posit that behaviors which conferred survival and reproductive advantages were more likely to be passed down through generations. One study that offers insightful implications for the evolutionary basis of fear behavior is the research conducted by Feinstein et al. (2012) on SM, to investigate the role of the amygdala in fear.

Question 17

Working Memory Model . Pero falta decir el difference (que si puede haber flow of information backwards y Que solo no puede haber algo si interfiere??)

Answer 17

The Working Memory Model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), presents an alternative perspective to the Multi-Store Model of memory. It emphasizes the active processing and manipulation of information within short-term memory (STM) and introduces the concept of working memory. This model consists of multiple components, including the central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer.

Landry and Bartling (2011) task that disrupts the phonological loop

Question 18

Schema Theory

Answer 18

Schemas Theory was proposed by Bartlet in 1932 who argued that the term”schema” accounts for how an individual’s experience of the external world is mediated by cognitive filters. Schemas are mental representations that organize our knowledge, beliefs and expectations thus playing a crucial role in memory processes. They are cognitive structures that are derived from prior experience, providing a framework for interpreting new information. Schemas influence memory processes at all stages, facilitating encoding, storage and retrieval.

Loftus and Palmer (1974) leading questions can activate different schemas.

Question 19

Model of thinking and decision making

Answer 19

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is a well-known model that explains the cognitive processes involved in thinking and decision making. According to the TRA, behavior is influenced by attitudes and subjective norms, which shape an individual’s behavioral intention. This theory has been widely applied in various domains to understand and predict human decision-making processes.

One study that examined the applicability of the TRA by Albarracin et al. (2009), which investigated the attitudes and behavioral predictors of condom use as a means of preventing HIV and STDs.

Question 20

Reconstructive memory

Answer 20

Reconstructive memory is a cognitive process that challenges the notion of memory as an exact replication of past events. It suggests that memory is not a simple retrieval of stored information but rather an active and dynamic process of constructing, filling in gaps, and integrating new information into existing cognitive frameworks. This process of reconstruction can be influenced by various factors, such as personal biases, external suggestions, and the interplay between stored knowledge and current experiences.

Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) investigation of the effects of leading questions on eyewitness testimony.

Question 21

One bias in thinking and decision making

Answer 21

Cognitive biases refer to systematic errors in thinking that affect people’s judgments and decisions. These biases often occur due to cognitive misers, ego depletion, or high cognitive load. The framing effect is a cognitive bias where people make decisions based on the way options are presented, either with positive or negative semantics. It influences intuitive judgments and can bias our decision-making process. Understanding the framing effect can provide insights into the complexities of decision-making and the influence of cognitive biases. In line with this,

Tversky and Kahneman (1986) conducted a study to investigate the influence of positive and negative frames on decision-making.

Question 22

Influence of emotion on one cognitive process

Answer 22

Psychological and neuroscientific research indicates a strong relationship between cognition and emotion. Emotion has a profound influence on our perception of the world and how we remember events and experiences. Emotionally significant events often leave a lasting impact on our memory, giving rise to vivid and detailed recollections known as flashbulb memories These memories are characterized by their almost perceptual clarity and are shaped by the interplay between cognitive processes and emotional experiences.

The study conducted by Brown and Kulik 1977 – formation of flashbulb memories.

Question 23

One cultural dimension

Answer 23

Cultural dimensions, proposed by Geert Hofstede, offer valuable insights into the ways in which cultures differ in their values, beliefs, and behaviors. Cultural dimensions are frameworks that allow us to compare and contrast various cultural groups based on key dimensions such as individualism versus collectivism.

One such dimension is individualism versus collectivism, which reflects the degree to which individuals prioritize their own interests over group interests. The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are integrated into groups and their perceived obligations and dependence on groups. Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on attaining personal goals, while Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals and well-being of the group.

Berry 1967 on conformity behavior.

Question 24

Influence of culture on behavior

Answer 24

Culture plays a significant role in shaping human behavior, as it encompasses a set of ideas, behaviors, attitudes, and traditions that are transmitted within groups of people across generations. These cultural influences tend to be resistant to change and can have a profound impact on individuals’ behaviors and actions.

Berry’s (1967) study on the level of conformity in different cultural societies provides valuable insights into how cultural orientations towards individualism or collectivism can influence behavior, specifically in terms of conformity.

Question 25

Belonging to cultural groups may influence behavior

Answer 25

Belonging to cultural groups can significantly influence behavior and cognition as individuals internalize and adhere to cultural norms, standards, expectations, and rules that guide their conduct. Cultural groups are social collectives formed by individuals who share common beliefs, values, practices, and traditions within a particular society or community. These cultural groups provide a sense of identity, belonging, and socialization, shaping individuals’ behavior and cognition.

Berry’s (1967) study sheds light on how cultural orientations towards individualism and collectivism influence behavior on conformity within two cultural groups

Question 26

One cultural origin of behavior

Answer 26

Cultural origins play a significant role in shaping human behavior, as they encompass deep-rooted cultural norms, values, and beliefs that guide individuals’ thoughts, decisions, and interactions. These cultural origins give rise to distinct dimensions of culture, such as individualism and collectivism, which provide frameworks for interpreting and responding to social situations.

Berry (1967) investigates the influence of cultural origins on a specific behavior, conformity, by examining the Temne society, representing a collectivistic culture, and the Inuit people, representing an individualistic culture.

Question 27

Enculturation

Answer 27

Enculturation is the process of learning the behaviours, characteristics and norms of the culture that they belong to. It encompasses the transmission of cultural values, including gender roles, from one generation to another. Parents play a crucial role in this process as they serve as primary agents of enculturation, shaping their children’s behavior through various means, such as observation and feedback.

Fagot 1978 looked at the role that parents may play in gender role development, shedding light on the specific role they play in shaping their childrens understanding of gender related behaviours and expectations.

Question 28

Cultural norms

Answer 28

Culture encompasses a wide range of ideas, behaviors, attitudes, and traditions that are shared among groups of people. Within these cultural contexts, cultural norms emerge as specific patterns of behavior that are commonly observed among members of a particular group. Cultural norms are the standards, expectations, and rules guiding behavior within cultural groups. These norms are crucial in shaping human behavior and are primarily acquired through socialization processes involving parents, teachers, and peers within the same cultural group.

Fagot’s 1978 study explored how parents contribute to the transmission of cultural norms regarding gender roles

Question 29

Acculturation

Answer 29

Acculturation is the changing of a person’s behavior and characteristics as a result of contact between different cultures. Acculturation fuels psychological changes resulting from adaptation to new cultural situations. This includes elements of both surface culture and deep culture, reaching ultimately into cultural identity. Understanding the factors that contribute to acculturative stress is essential in comprehending the challenges individuals face during this transformative process.

Lueck and Wilson (2010) conducted a study with the aim of examining the variables that predict acculturative stress

Question 30

Assimilation

Answer 30

Assimilation is one outcome of acculturation which is the changing of a person’s behavior and characteristics as a result of contact between different cultures. It involves the complete adoption of the ways of life of the new cultural group, resulting in the assimilated group losing nearly all of its original or native culture.

Lueck and Wilson’s (2010) study explores the dynamics of assimilation among Asian immigrants and Asian Americans, aiming to understand the variables that influence the degree of assimilation and its impact on individuals’ cultural identity.