Introductory and Perception

Question 1

What is Cognition?

Answer 1

(Thinking) The process of knowing including awareness and judgment.

Question 2

What is Emotion?

Answer 2

(Feeling) Psychic and Physical responses subjectively experienced as strong feelings and physiologically involves changes that prepare body for immediate and vigorous action

Question 3

What is information processing?

Answer 3

How external stimuli causes internal processes to occur. The information processing approach is the idea that human processing is akin to computers. Information processing is how we take in information and how we recover it when needed.

Question 4

What is the difference between top down and bottom up information processing?

Answer 4

Top down information processing involves internal subject factors; drawing upon experience. It is conceptually driven. Bottom down information processing involves environmental stimuli; not drawing upon experience. It is data driven

Question 5

What is the difference between serial and parallel processing?

Answer 5

serial processing- using only one process at a given time.

parallel processing- using some or all processes at the same time.

Question 6

Describe this technique for studying cognition and emotions.

PET

Answer 6

Positron Emissions Tomograph (PET)- Glucose and radioactive isotype is injected. Emits positrons that collide with electrons. Give high energy light particles that are detected by scanner. Integrated across many different angles.
Technique- water containing radioactive tracer emits positrons; water rushes to active brain region; detector near the head measures positrons emitted
Limitations- poor temporal resolution; invasive

Question 7

Describe this technique for studying cognition and emotions.

fMRI

Answer 7

Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)- Measures function. Similar to MRI- Use of strong magnetic field; no x-irradiation used; radio frequency pulse energizes protons; time distance from pulse reflects characteristics of matter scanned
Good gray to white matter contrast; better resolution that CT but expensive
Performed while subject is engaged in an experimental task
Has greater spatial and temporal resolution than PET
Technique- Non invasive, indirect measure of brain activity; event related fMRI
Limitations- Expensive; Poor Temporal Resolution; Indirect measure of brain activity; distortions in some brain regions; noisy and uncomfortable during scanning

Question 8

Describe this technique for studying cognition and emotions.

TMS

Answer 8

Transcrainial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)- External (from skin on skull) magnetic stimulation of cortical neuron; used to treat depression, bipolar disorder
Technique- brief pulse are emitted by a coil next to the skull; produces a magnetic field that can disrupt brain activity in the underlying cortex; provides direct evidence for involvement of brain regions.
Limitations- Not clear how TMS changes brain activity; can only target cortex; May cause painful muscle spasms; demands difficult tasks because the brain is otherwise able to compensate.

Question 9

Name the Features of emotions.

Answer 9

Emotions are adaptive
Emotions motivate goal directed behavior
Emotions provide action disposition information
Emotions organize systemic priorities through their salience
Responses are mediated by anticipated interpersonal consequences
Emotions involve discrete expressive motor patterns
Emotion is a primary communication system
Emotion is a form of meaning
Schematic emotion memory mediates emotional responding
Activation of emotion schemata produces emotional experience
Emotional schemata are continually elaborated by new experience
Cognitive-affective processing provides a rapid but flexible response system

Question 10

What are the therapeutic implications of emotions?

Answer 10

Full awareness of emotions enhances adaptive functioning.
Emotion provides information regarding tacit values and standards.
Awareness of communication impact of one’s emotion enhance interaction.
Maladaptive motional responses can be learned.
Emotional restructuring requires schema activation.
Emotional experience presses for completion.
The therapeutic relationship is an important medium for changing emotional schemata

Question 11

Define Perception.

Answer 11

The acquisition and processing of sensory information in order to see, hear, taste, smell or feel an object in the world. Perception guides an organism’s actions with respect to those objects.
Perception= Sensation+ Meaning

Question 12

What is Size Constancy?

Answer 12

The tendency for an object to appear the same size whether their size in the retinal image is larger or small.

Question 13

What are some factors that effect size constancy?

Answer 13

We automatically take into account distance and familiarity. For example if a person is familiar the observer cannot be fooled by the Ames room experiment. Haber and Levin (2001) argue that size perception of objects typically depends on memory of their familiar size rather than on perceptual information concerning their distance from the observer.

Question 14

Explain ventral and dorsal streams for visual perception.

Answer 14

Dorsal- Where, how, action- spatial perception via dorsal pathway running from V1 to posterior parietal cortex.
Ventral-What- Object perception via ventral pathway running from V1 to inferior temporal cortex.

Question 15

Name some of the characteristics of the ventral stream for visual perception.

Answer 15

Ventral (What is it?) Vision for perception; Allocentric; Sustained Representation; Usually Conscious; Faster processing; Input from the fovea; View point invariant.

Question 16

Name some of the characteristics of the dorsal stream for visual perception.

Answer 16

Dorsal (Where is it?) Vision for action (motion); egocentric; short lived representation; usually unconscious; view point dependent.

Question 17

Name the steps related to object naming (Object recognition)

Answer 17

Early Visual Processing
Object Description (viewpoint dependent)
Perceptual classification (viewpoint invariant)
Semantic classification (meaningful grouping)
Naming ( Can misname object due to misperception and independently of language system)

Question 18

Explain “Blindsight”

Answer 18

Perception without awareness- responding appropriately to visual stimuli in the absence of conscious visual experience. It is associated with severe brain damage to V1. Impairments due to knock on effects due to V1 damage. Intact abilities rely upon a neural tract liking lateral geniculate nucleus to the ipsilatral human visual motion area (V5/MT) that by passes V1.

Question 19

Depth Perception: Describe Monocular Cues

Answer 19

Monocular cues are cues that can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye. Examples include: Linear perspective- lines converge in distance; Aerial perspective- increased haziness in distance; Texture fewer details in distance; Interposition- figure in front hides one behind it; Shading- shadows; Familiar Size- use to estimate size of unknown; Image blue- boundary sharp/blur indicates near/far, divides different textures; Motion Parallax- nearer objects travels farther over retina than farther object.

Question 20

Depth Perception: Describe Binocular Cues

Answer 20

Binocular cues that are based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes. binocular vision. Stereopsis refers to the depth and 3-D structure obtained on the basis of information deriving from two eyes. Since our eyes are located at different lateral positions on the head, binocular vision results in two slightly different images projected to the retinas of the eyes (binocular disparities)- seeing in 3-D

Question 21

Describe the route of visual signals from the eyes to the brain.

Answer 21

Signals reaching the left visual cortex come from the left sides of the two retinas. The left optic tract carries information from both right fields. Signals reaching the right visual cortex come from the right sides of the two retinas. The right optic tract carries information from both left fields. Lateral visual field projects directly to opposite hemisphere.

Question 22

What is double dissociation?

Answer 22

Double Dissociation is when two related mental processes are shown to function independently of each other. For example, although speech and language comprehension pertain to use of language, the brain structures that control them work independently. When Broca’s area is damaged, patients may still understand language but be unable to speak fluently. On the other hand, when Wernicke’s area is damaged, patients may still speak fluently, but be unable to comprehend language.

Question 23

How does Deborah Tannen define “Agonism”?

Answer 23

“a war like oppositional format”- the negative stuff we are faced with. Tannen argues promoting a sense of community/relatedness by seeing the world from another’s perspective and seeing the good in others rather than negativity/stupidity

Question 24

How did Deborah Tannen describe direct versus indirect approach?

Answer 24

Direct and indirect is considered as a continuum of communication style. There are differences in gender (ie male-direct; female-indirect). Indirect approach is used often to start negotiation.

Question 25

Describe the various levels of Marr’s computational theory.

Answer 25

Marr’s Theory involves three stages of vision. Primal sketch provides 2-D description of main light-intensity changes, including information about edges, contours and blobs. It is observer centered- viewpoint dependent. 2 1/2 D sketch incorporates depth and orientation of visible surfaces. Makes use of shading, texture, motion, binocular disparity. It is observer centered-viewpoint dependent. The 3-D model representation involves 3 dimensional object shape (cylinders, major axes, concavities, relative positions. It is viewpoint invariant.

Question 26

Describe the interactions and functions of V1, V2, V3, V4, V5.

Answer 26

V1 and V2 are involved at an early stage and respond to colour and form. V3 and V3a respond to form (especially in motion) but not to colour. V4 responds to colour and line orientation. V5 is specialized for visual motion.

Question 27

Describe how grasping requires object knowledge from long term memory (LTM).

Answer 27

Grasping ability diminishes when long-term memory is preoccupied (ie, interference task). This suggests that grasping partially depends on LTM abilities. Grasping for objects requires both visual systems especially when memory is required, times is available, planning is necessary, the action is unpracticed.

Question 28

Describe Biederman’s Recognition-by-Components Theory.

Answer 28

Objects consist of combinations of geons- geometric icons, 36 basic shapes. Object recognition is viewpoint invariant- emphasizes bottom- up processing.

Question 29

What are the five invariant properties of edges in Biderman’s Recognition-by-components theory?

Answer 29

Curvature-points on a curve; Parallel-sets of points in parallel; cotermination- edges terminating at a common point; symmetry-contrast with asymmetry; collinarity- points sharing a common line.

Question 30

Compare and contrast Biederman (1987) and Tarr (1995) theories.

Answer 30

Biderman- viewpoint invariant- the ease of object recognition is not affected by the observer’s viewpoint.
Tarr- Changes in viewpoint reduce the speed and/or accuracy of object recognition- viewpoint dependent.

Question 31

Describe viewpoint dependent and viewpoint invariant.

Answer 31

View point dependent- can only recognize objects in 3D; within class; difficult; dorsal; object identification. Viewpoint invariant- between class; easy; ventral; object categorization. There is likely overlap in processing across routes, especially within the ventral route.

Question 32

What is the fundamental principle of Gestalt Psychology?

Answer 32

The law of Pragnanz- of several geometrically possible organizations that one will actually occur which possesses the best simplest and most stable shape- quick ways of identifying and organizing information.

Question 33

What are the Gestalt laws of Perceptual organization?

Answer 33

the law of proximity – elements tend to be grouped together if they are close; the law of similarity – similar elements are grouped; the law of good continuation – elements requiring the fewest changes or interruptions in straight or smooth lines are grouped together; the law of closure – illustrated when we mentally fill in missing parts of a figure (e.g., a circle); the law of common fate – elements moving together are grouped together.

Question 34

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Gestalt approach?

Answer 34

Advantages: Offers a good description of certain properties of perceptual organization; many principles have stood the test of time.
Limitations: Most Principles are less applicable to images more detailed that 2-D drawings ( principles are not entirely sufficient); more descriptive than explanatory; the claim that figure-ground segregation is independent of top-down influence is incorrect (especially for complex scenes)

Question 35

What is Figure-Ground Segregation?

Answer 35

Faces-goblet illusion: an ambiguous drawing which can be seen either as two faces or as a goblet- it is assumed that more attention is paid to the fiqure than the ground.

Question 36

What is Global precedence effect?

Answer 36

Related to Navon stimuli (global letters made up of local features)- Global features typically identified quicker than local features- global features are what we see first.

Question 37

How did Kimchi and Hadad (2002) disagree with Gestalt theory?

Answer 37

Past experiences influences speed of perceptual grouping. They concluded that, in contrast to Gestaltist thinking, perceptual organization is not entirely bottom-up.

Question 38

How did Vecera, Fevaria and Filapek (2004) disagree with Gestalt theory?

Answer 38

Spatial attention can occur before the completion of figure-ground processes.

Question 39

How did Grill-Spector and Kanwisher (2005) disagree with Gestalt theory?

Answer 39

Segregation and recognition may involve similar bottom-up and top-down processes.