Introduction to Psychology (Module 5)

Question 1

Nature - the contributions of ________ to our ________ ________ and ________.

Answer 1

heredity, physical structue, behaviors

Question 2

Nurture- the contributions of _____________ _______ and __________ to our ________ _________ and _________.

Answer 2

environmental factors, experience, physical structure, behaviors

Question 3

Genotype - An individual’s profile of ________.

Answer 3

alleles

Question 4

Phenotype - An ______ characteristic. Gene a small ______ of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome that produces a ______.

Answer 4

observable, segment, protein

Question 5

Contemporary psychologists view the contributions of ______ (our heredity or innate predispositions) and ______ (the results of our experience with the environment) as being closely ______, as opposed to somehow competing for control over ______ and ______.

Answer 5

nature, nurture, intertwined, structure, behavior

Question 6

__________ have not always thought about nature and nurture the way we do today. Instead of viewing the actions of nature and nurture as __________, earlier scholars talked in terms of nature versus nurture and debated the relative contributions of nature or nurture to a particular ____ of behavior.

Answer 6

Scholars, inseparable, type

Question 7

Credit for describing the contrast between _________ and _________ as “nature versus nurture” usually goes to ______ _____ (1869), who was Charles Darwin’s _____. Galton believed that _________ was largely the result of inheritance, a topic tackled in Chapter 10. Over the next 150 years or so, many thinkers engaged in a highly spirited debate on this question. As Chapter 10 will demonstrate, contemporary psychologists view intelligence as another example of an outcome shaped by both _________ _________ and _________.

Answer 7

heredity, environment, Francis Galton, cousin, intelligence, genetic inheritance, environment

Question 8

We can say with some certainty that the either/or approach to human behavior has produced some of the most ___________ discussions in the history of ___________. Our motive for arguing in favor of the intertwined approach to nature and nurture is intended not to sidestep difficult questions, but rather to support good science. By zooming out to integrate a number of perspectives, both _________
and ___________, we can achieve a more accurate understanding of these questions.

Answer 8

contentious, psychology, biological, experiential

Question 9

Every nucleus in the approximately ______________ of your body, with the exception of your _______________ and _____ or _____, contains two complete copies of the _________ ______, a set of instructions for building a human. Your personal set of instructions is known as a ___________, which interacts with the environment to produce observable characteristics, known as a ________.

Answer 9

37 trillion cells, red blood cells, sperm, eggs, human genome, genotype, phenotype

Question 10

One half of your genotype was provided by your mother’s ____, and the other half was provided by your father’s ____. Each parent contributes a set of __ chromosomes, which in turn are composed of many ________ of DNA. A smaller segment of DNA located in a particular place on a chromosome is known as a ____. Each gene contains ____________.

Answer 10

egg, sperm, 23, molecules, gene, instructions

Question 11

The mitochondria performs the most important functions such as _______, _______, _________ _________.

Answer 11

oxidation, dehydration oxidative phosphorylation

Question 12

Traditionally referred to as the powerhouses of cells, mitochondria play a vital role in the ______ of energy from ______ into energy for ______ ______. However in recent years, a growing number of studies have demonstrated that mitochondria are also deeply involved in a range of other activities that enable cells to function ______ and help to maintain a healthy body. When mitochondrial ______ occurs, disruptions to these activities can result in ______ ____ ______ and development of ______.

Answer 12

conversion, food, biological processes, efficiently, dysfunction, disordered cell function, disease

Question 13

_____________ pairs of chromosomes make up the ________ ______.

Answer 13

Twenty-three, human genome

Question 14

Some genes have a large number of alleles. Of the more than 500 alleles for the BRCAT (______ _____ _) gene, a small number are associated with a higher risk for breast and other cancers. Actress Angelina Jolie, who possesses the high-risk alleles, chose to undergo a preventive __________ to reduce her chances of developing breast cancer.

Answer 14

Breast Cancer 1, mastectomy

Question 15

Genotype and Phenotype of Blood Type
The three possible blood type alleles- _, _, and _ - can be combined to produce Type A, Type B, Type O, or Type AB blood.

Answer 15

A, B, O,

Question 16

Gene expression is the process in which ______ ________ are converted into a feature of a ______ ____.
Allele One of several ___________, as in having an A, B, or O blood type allele.
Homozygous having ________________ alleles for a gene.
Heterozygous having _______________ for a gene.
Recessive A feature of an allele that produces a ______________ only in the ___________ _________.
Dominant A feature of an allele that determines a __________ in either the __________ or the _____________ condition.

Answer 16

genetic instruction, living cell

versions of gene

two of the same alleles

two different alleles

phenotype, homozygous condition

phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous

Question 17

For making a particular type of _______. Gene expression occurs when these _______ _________ are used to produce a particular _______. Each cell contains the instructions for an entire _________ _________, but only a subset of instructions is expressed at any given time and location. Gene expression in a ____ cell is different from gene expression in a _____ cell or a ____ cell.

Answer 17

protein, genetic instructions, protein, human organism, nerve, muscle, skin

Question 18

Different versions of a ____, or ______, can give rise to different ________ _____. Many alleles can occur for a given gene, but an individual receives only two-one from each parent. For example, alleles for blood type include A, B, and O, but typically, nobody has all ______. As shown in Figure 3.1, combinations of your two alleles make your blood Type _ (AA or AO), Type _ (BB or BO), Type __ (AB), or Type _ (00).

Answer 18

gene, alleles, phenotypic traits, three, A, B, AB, O

Question 19

If both parents contribute the same type of _____, such as a version of the ____ gene related to having freckles, the child would be considered homozygous for that gene (homos means “____” in Greek). If the parents contribute different alleles, such as one for freckles from one parent and one related to not having freckles from the other, the child is heterozygous for that gene (hetero means “________” in Greek). _______ alleles determine a phenotype only when an individual is homozygous for a particular gene, whereas ______ alleles determine a phenotype in either the ________ or the _________ condition. Because alleles for no —

Answer 19

allele, MCIR, homozygous, same, different, Recessive, dominant, homozygous, heterozygous

Question 20

DNA BELONGING TO different individuals can be compared using __________ formed by labeling ___ _____________ with a ________ _____ and then exposing the DNA to ________.

Answer 20

autoradiographs, DNA fragments, radioactive marker, x-ray film

Question 21

In this case, we are looking at a simple _______ ____ (____________________). DNA samples have been taken from three people: a mother, her child, and the possible father of the child. The two letters for each segment represent the individual’s genotype. For example, in the first autoradiograph, the mother is an __, the child is an __, and the possible father is a __.

Answer 21

paternity test, Public Broadcasting Service 1998, AD, AC, BC

Question 21

In this case, we are looking at a simple _______ ____ (____________________). DNA samples have been taken from three people: a mother, her child, and the possible father of the child. The two letters for each segment represent the individual’s genotype. For example, in the first autoradiograph, the mother is an __, the child is an __, and the possible father is a __.

Answer 21

paternity test, Public Broadcasting Service 1998, AD, AC, BC

Question 22

________ are small brown spots on your skin, often in areas that get ___ ________. In most cases, freckles are ________. They form as a result of ______________________, which is responsible for skin and hair color.

Answer 22

Freckles, sun exposure, harmless, overproduction of melanin

Question 23

In a study of gene-environment interactions involving the ____________ (SERT) and a child’s response to bullying, the authors note that with two types of alleles (S for short or L. for long), individuals could have one—

Answer 23

serotonin transporter gene

Question 24

Autoradiography was discovered at the beginning of last century when ____ ________ observed that a “________” ________coming from _______ impressed _______ _____ (Becquerel, 1896). Not long after Becquerel's discovery of _________, ____ _______ (Villard, 1900a, 1900b) at the _____________, _____, used autoradiography to demonstrate his discovery of ______ _________. With autograph Villard demonstrated the existence of a radiation that would not _______ (bend) in a ______ _______. This radiation was later given the name of gamma radiation by ________ ___________ (Rutherford, 1903).

Answer 24

Henri Becquerel, mysterious, radiation, uranium, photographic plates, radioactivity, Paul Villard, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, gamma radiation, deviate, magnetic field, Ernest Rutherford

Question 25

Genetic Variation If you have siblings, you are aware that having the same biological parents does not guarantee similar _______, _______, and _______. The development of an egg or sperm cell is like _____________________. In both cases, a large number of possible outcomes may occur. When a parent's cell divides to make an egg or a sperm cell, each resulting cell contains 23 chromosomes, one chromosome from each of the parent's original 23 chromosome pairs. As a result, a single human can produce eggs or sperm with ____(______________) combinations of chromosomes. Add this variability to the different possibilities provided by the other parent, and it may seem surprising that we resemble our relatives as much as we do.

Answer 25

appearance, personality, behavior, shuffling a deck of cards, 223, 8,388,608,

Question 26

Relatedness - The Probability that two people _____________________________________.

Answer 26

share the same allele from a common ancestor.

Question 27

Despite this potential variability, we remain similar to our _____ ________. This important point will be revisited later in the chapter, when the _______________ is discussed. Relatedness is defined as the probability that two people share ____________________ from a common ancestor. If we go back in history far enough, we all share _____ _____. Relatedness, however, is usually computed within a limited _______________.

Answer 27

genetic relatives, evolution of social behavior, copies of the same allele, common ancestor, number of generations

Question 28

The chance that you share an allele with one of your parents is _____, as is the chance that you share an allele with a sibling. First cousins have a ________ likelihood of sharing an allele (see Figure 3.4). These types of calculations led ________ _._._. ________ to allegedly proclaim, “I would lay down my life for two brothers or eight cousins!" (Bynum & Porter, 2005, p. 261). Haldane was computing the likelihood that his genes would be passed down to future generations. As discussed later in the chapter, ___________ ____________ suggest that sacrificing yourself for others is more likely when the others are genetically related relatives.

Answer 28

one-half, one-eight, geneticist J.B.S Haldane, evolutionary psychologists

Question 29

Of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes from each parent, ___________________.

Answer 29

22 pairs are perfectly matched.

Question 30

In other words, a gene appearing on one of a pair of chromosomes (perhaps a gene for blood type) has a corresponding gene on its partner. In contrast, the X and Y chromosomes do not carry the same genes. The much-larger X chromosome contains about ______________, while the Y has ____________. Females carry ___ _______of the X chromosome, whereas males carry one X and one Y chromosome.

Answer 30

2,000 active genes, fewer than 100, two copies

Question 31

The allele responsible for _________, a disease characterized by the ______________, is found only on the __ __________. This allele is recessive, leading to different outcomes based on the sex of the child receiving the alleles. If a female receives a healthy allele on the X chromosome from one parent and a disease-causing allele on the X chromosome from her other parent, she will be a carrier for the condition but not experience it. In contrast, a male receiving a disease-causing allele on the X chromosome from his mother will have the condition. Because there is no equivalent allele on the Y chromosome to offset the disease-causing recessive allele, the disease-causing allele will be expressed. As a result, conditions such as hemophilia are more frequent among _______ and are called _________________ (see Figure 3.5). As illustrated in Figure 3.6, the family of ______________________ (1819-1901) spread hemophilia to a number of European royal houses.

Answer 31

hemophilia, failure of blood to clot, X chromosome, males, sex-linked characteristics, Queen Victoria of Great Britain

Question 32

Even when genes are duplicated on the X and Y chromosomes, they can perform very differently depending on their location. _________ _____ determine the sex of the source of a genetic sample by observing the _______ ______, which contributes to the development of ______ ________ (Akane, 1998). The size of the amelogenin gene on the X chromosome is different than on the Y chromosome. Differences between genes for immune system function located on the sex chromosomes might explain the higher risks associated with ______ ____________ in which the gender of the ______ and ________ do not match (Ge, Huang, Yuan, Zhou, & Gong, 2012).

Answer 32

Forensic experts, amelogenin gene, tooth enamel, organ transplants, donor, recipient

Question 33

GENETICS Genetics is the study of _______. Heredity is a ________ _________ whereby a parent passes certain genes onto their _________ or _______. Every child inherits genes from both of their biological parents and these genes, in turn, ______________.

Answer 33

heredity, biological process, children, offspring, express specific traits

Question 34

Our species share quite a few genes with _____, _______, _______, _______, and a _____ known as _______ _____(see Figure 3.7). At the same time, humans have genes that definitely set them apart from other animals (and plants). For example, research points to differences between humans and chimpanzees in a single gene, _____, which appears to have had a significant effect on distinctly human behaviors, including _____ _____ (Konopka et al,. 2009).

Answer 34

chimpanzees, mice, flies, yeast, weed, thale cress, FoxP2, spoken language

Question 35

Table 3.2 compares several subfields of genetics that are relevant to our understanding of ________ and ________ ________. _____________ ___________ attempt to discover the strength of genetic influences on a particular behavior. ________ ________ look for candidate genes, or genes that have a greater impact on a trait of interest that other genes. ________ ________ study the entire ________, looking for whole patterns of genetic differences linked to a given trait. Finally, geneticists studying ________________ interactions look for situations in which candidate genes appear to have different effects.

Answer 35

behavior, mental processes, Behavioral geneticists, genetic influences, Molecular geneticists, Functional geneticsists, genome, gene-environment

Question 36

Behavioral Genetics - The scientific field that attempts to _____ and _____ links between _____ and _____. Heritability - The _____ likelihood that _____ observed in a _____ are because of _____.

Answer 36

identify, understand, genetics, behavior, statistical, variations, population, genetics

Question 37

Investigates the strength of genetic influences on a particular behavior. Heritability is the _________ _________ that _________ observed across individuals in a population are due to _________. If genes play no part in producing _________ _________ among individuals, heritability is ____.

Answer 37

statistical likelihood, variations, genetics, phenotypical differences, zero

Question 38

For example, genes are responsible for _____ _____, but there is no individual variation in the population in terms of the presence of a heart each of us has one. Consequently, the heritability of having a heart is zero. If genes are totally responsible for all _________ __________ among individuals, heritability is ___. For example, all variation in the population in terms of having or not having a ______ __________ condition known as __________ _____ is entirely because of genetics. If you inherit a Huntington's gene from one parent, you will develop the condition. Heritability of most human traits is typically in the range of __________.

Answer 38

human hearts, phenotypic differences, 1.0, fatal neurological, Huntington's disease, 0.30 to 0.60

Question 39

Heritability is a concept that is frequently _________. It always refers to _________, never to _________. Saying that a trait such as shyness is ___% heritable does not say that -

Answer 39

misunderstood, populations, individuals, 40%

Question 40

Behavioral Genetics ______________ Variations in ________ across the population appear to be strongly influenced by genetics.

Answer 40

Amount of heritability, loneliness

Question 41

_________ Genetics Candidate genes _______________________ loneliness more than others.

Answer 41

Molecular, Certain genes seem to impact

Question 42

Functional Genetics Links between the ________ ________ and ________ _____ Genes might be expressed differently in _______ and ___ ______ individuals

Answer 42

global genome, particular traits, lonely, not lonely

Question 43

Gene- environment interactions Candidate genes have different _______ in different _______ Candidate genes seem to have more impact or loneliness in some __________ compared to others.

Answer 43

effects, situations, environments

Question 44

Heritability of Some Human Conditions Heritability rates tell us how much of the _______ seen in a population can be because of _______. According to these data, we can say that genes have a greater influence on _______ _______ disorder than on _______ _______.

Answer 44

variability, genetics, autism spectrum, reading disabilities

Question 45

Twin studies are also useful in establishing ________ ____, which are statistical probabilities that a trait observed in one person will be seen in another. Concordance rates are especially useful to psychologists interested in ____________ _________ because they provide estimates of the ________ of a condition. For example, concordance rates for _______ ________ disorder (see Chapter 14) are high in identical twins (95.2%) relative to fraternal twins (4.3%; Nordenbæk, Jørgensen, Kyvik, & Bilenberg, 2014). Because both types of twins share a uterine environment and are exposed to similar parenting, this discrepancy makes a strong argument for the importance of genetic influences on autism spectrum disorder.

Answer 45

concordance rates, psychological disorders, heritability, autism spectrum

Question 46

Although we can say that all humans share 100% of their ______, we do not share 100% of our ______, giving each of us a unique version of the ______. In other words, we all share genes that produce eye color of some sort, but our different combinations of alleles result in a variety of shades. There are at least __________________ in the human genome-enough for us to differ from one another in nearly every gene (Plomin & Spinath, 2004). Analyzing variations of DNA in individuals who do or do not have a particular trait of interest, such as an illness or psychological disorder, can help ________ __________ pinpoint the causes of problems and suggest preventive _________.

Answer 46

genes, alleles, genome, 3 million DNA variations, molecular geneticists, strategies

Question 47

Genome wide Association Studies concordance rates The _______ _______ that a trait in one person will be shared by another; usually discussed in relation to _______ and _______ twins.

Answer 47

statistical probability, identical, fraternal

Question 48

A common misunderstanding is the belief that we can identify'a gene for a particular behavior. For example, a recent headline in Time magazine trumpets, "_________________________________" (Szalavitz, 2016). It is important to remember that genes encode for _________, not behaviors. Genes build _________ that construct _________, and brains might or might not become addicted to _________. Rather than viewing a gene as causing a complex behavior, it is more accurate to view genes as contributing to the development and functioning of the _________ _________, which in turn generates observable behavior.

Answer 48

The Genes for Pot Addiction Have Been Identified, proteins, brains, cannabis, nervous system

Question 49

Prior to the development of databases made possible by the ______________________ and the ____________________, investigating more than a few genes at a time was not feasible. Instead, candidate gene research studies were conducted, in which one gene or a small number of genes were compared between groups of people with and without a condition of interest. This search for candidate genes for a particular phenotype, such as __________, did not result in accurate or complete findings (Farrell et al, 2015). Rather than testing single genes, contemporary functional geneticists often use ___________________ (GWAS) or ____________________ (WGS). Emerging technologies now allow researchers to scan complete sets of DNA from many participants, looking for variations associated with a particular phenotype, condition, or disease. When 25 historical candidate genes for schizophrenia were reevaluated using GWAS, effects for 24 of the 25 genes were not confirmed, and 4 genes that had been missed by the candidate gene approach appear to be quite important (Farrell et al., 2015). As our methods for conducting genetic research improve, our answers become more complete and accurate.

Answer 49

Human Genome Project, International Hap Map Project, schizophrenia, genomewide association studies, whole-genome sequencing,

Question 50

genomewide association study (GWAS) A _____________________________ from many participants, which is performed to look for variations associated with a particular ________, ________, or ________. epigenetics The study of ______/_________ interactions in the ___________________.

Answer 50

scan of complete sets of DNA, phenotype, condition, disease gene/environment, production of phenotypes

Question 51

Epigenetics Having identical genotypes, as is the case with identical twins. does not guarantee identical phenotypes, or observed characteristics. As we explained in the example of the ______ gene's effects on the fur color and weight of baby mice, different phenotypes can result from the same genotype due to interactions between the organism and its environment. When factors other than the genotype produce changes in a phenotype, we say that an epigenetic change has occurred. ___ is Greek for _____" or _____," so epigenetics refers to the ___________________________________________ by factors that determine how genes perform.

Answer 51

Agouti, Epi, over, above, reversible development of traits

Question 52

The field of epigenetics explores these gene-environment interactions. Epigenetic change influences _____ _________, the process by which DNA builds proteins that contribute to features of _____ _____. Genes can be turned on or off by internal signals (_____ or _____) or by signals from _____ _____ (diet or toxins). There is an obvious need for epigenetics in development, as the differences between a ____ cell and a ______ cell result from turning on the right set of genes and turning off others. Thus, the magnitude of epigenetic change depends on an organism's ___. The fetus experiences the highest rate of epigenetic change, followed by the child and finally, the adult. While epigenetic changes are reversible, many last entire lifetimes. For example, individuals who experienced ______ life events during childhood were found to have long-term epigenetic changes in the ________ , a structure associated with ________ and ______to stress (Abdolmaleky, Zhou, & Thiagalingam, 2015).

Answer 52

gene expression, living cells, hormones, neurochemicals, external sources, skin, muscle, age, traumatic, hippocampus, memory, responses

Question 53

Fraga et al. (2005) studied ________________ pairs between the ages of __ and ___. The two chromosomes on the left belong to a pair of 3 year-old twins, and those on the right belong to a pair of 50-year-old twins. Areas of red indicate differences between the two chromosomes in each pair related to differences in gene expression. As twins age, their gene expression becomes more different, as indicated by the greater amount of red in the chromosomes from the older twins. Twins who had spent the most time apart showed the greatest ________ ____________.

Answer 53

160 identical twin pairs, 3, 74, epigenetic differences

Question 54

Among the factors known to produce epigenetic change are ________, ________________ ________, ________, ________, and ________ ________. In particular, ________ and ________ experienced by pregnant women have the potential to influence the epigenetics of the fetus, leading to lifelong effects on physical and psychological well-being. In the discussion of psychological disorders in Chapter 14, you will see that many disorders trace their roots to a combination of genetic vulnerability and disruptions experienced by the ________ woman, such as ________ or ________.

Answer 54

nutrition, disease-causing organisms, drugs, stress, environmental toxins, malnutrition, stress, pregnant, ilness, malnourishment

Question 55

Geneticists have identified four processes that produce lasting but reversible changes in gene expression: __________________, ___ ________, ________ ________, and ____ ________ (see Figure 3.11). For the purposes of this overview, we will focus on histone modification and DNA methylation. Histones are ________ ________ around which your DNA is ________. If the DNA in a single cell were not wound up in this fashion, it would be over 6 feet long (Annunziato, 2008). When either the core or the tail of a histone interacts with ________ ________, the expression of nearby segments of DNA can become more or less likely. DNA methylation occurs when a ________ _____ (one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms) is added to the DNA molecule. This has the result of turning genes off. You can think about DNA methylation as being similar to stapling some pages in a book together. Because of the staples, you can't read the pages.

Answer 55

ribonucleic acid (RNA) interference, RNA editing, histone modification, DNA methylation, protein structures, wound, regulatory proteins, methyl group

Question 56

Mechanisms of Epigenetic Change. Two processes for producing epigenetic change are _______ _______ and ___ _______. Histone modification occurs when certain _____________ with the _______ or ______________. DNA methylation occurs when a _______ _______ (one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms) _______ to the ___ _______. These modifications affect the likelihood that particular genes will be _______ or _______.

Answer 56

histone modification, DNA methylation, chemicals interact, tail, core of a histone, methyl group, attaches, DNA molecule, expressed, silenced