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Neurophysiology > Introduction to neuroanatomy > Flashcards

Introduction to neuroanatomy Flashcards

1
Q

How many synapses does each cell form

A

Around 10,000

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2
Q

What are the 2 types of synapses

A

Chemical or electric

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3
Q

What 2 types of receptors does the nervous system use

A

Ionotropic and metabotropic receptors

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4
Q

What do we do to cells to view them

A

Harden tissue without destroying its structure (fixative-formaldehyde)
Microtome (section brain tissue into small sections)
Staining techniques

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5
Q

What helps form the blood-brain barrier around the blood vessels

A

Astrocytes’ end feet

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6
Q

What is a gathering of neuron cell bodies in PNS

A

Ganglion

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7
Q

What is a cluster of neurons in CNS, usually deep in the brain

A

Nucleus

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8
Q

What is a nerve

A

Bundle of long axons in in PNS

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9
Q

What is a tract

A

Bundle of axons in CNS with a common site of origin and destination

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10
Q

What makes up the CNS

A

Brain- cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem

Spinal cord

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11
Q

What can the cerebrum be split up into

A

Diencephalon and cerebral hemisphere

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12
Q

What can the cerebral hemisphere be split up into

A

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, hippocampus amygdala

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13
Q

What can the diencephalon be split into

A

Thalamus and hypothalamus

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14
Q

What can the brainstem be split into

A

Midbrain, pons, medulla

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15
Q

What is grey matter vs white matter

A

Grey matter- generic collections of neuronal cell bodies in CNS
White matter- tracts of myelinated nerve cells in CNS

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16
Q

How do nerve cells tend ot be grouped

A

In CNS- clusters or layers, with their associated nerve fibres forming the axon tracts

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17
Q

Who first described the neuron

A

Purkinje in 1837

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18
Q

Who laid the foundation of our knowledge of cellular organsiation of the brain

A

Cajal in his studies of the adult and developing nervous system
Provided descriptions of synapses and their proposed function, with detailed drawings

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19
Q

What method did Cajal use to visualise neurons and glia

A

The Golgi method aka impregnation- place a section of brain in a beaker containing potassium dichromate and silver nitrate, silver chromate precipitates out within the cytoplasm of cells

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20
Q

What other modulatory factors of the nervous system are not recognised in the simple Neuron Doctrine

A

Gap junctions which modulate cell activation, modulatory receptors on pre-synaptic elements, modulatory action of transmitters/hormones in the local environment which affect neuronal activity

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21
Q

In which direction does conduction take palce

A

Dendrites to soma to axon terminals

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22
Q

Who from Oxford made a big contribution to neuroanatomical nomenclature

A

Thomas Willis (1621-1675)

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23
Q

3 vesicle stage of development- what are the 4 sections

A

Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, caudal part of neural tube

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24
Q

Development- what does the forebrain develop into in the 5 vesicle stage

A

Telencephalon (2 cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon

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25
Q

Development- what does the midbrain develop into

A

Midbrain

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26
Q

Development- what does the hindbrain develop into

A

Pons, medulla, cerebellum

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27
Q

Development- what does the caudal part of the neural tube develop into

A

The spinal cord

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28
Q

What cavity lies between the 2 parts of the diencephali

A

3rd ventricle

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29
Q

What cavity results from the midbrain

A

Aqueduct, surrounded by a region of grey matter called the periaqueductal grey

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30
Q

What cavity results from te hindbrain

A

Fourth ventricle

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31
Q

What cavity results from the caudal part of the neural tube

A

Central cantral

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32
Q

What are the 3 coverings of meninges surrounding the CNS

A

Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

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33
Q

What is the dura mater

A

Tough fibrous covering applied to the periosteum of the cranium
Has folds that extend between the main lobes of the CNS eg the falx cerebri

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34
Q

What is the periosteum

A

Membrane covering the outside of all bones

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35
Q

What is the arachnoid mater

A

Fine membraneous layer that lies beneath the dura mater

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36
Q

What is the pia mater

A

The part of the surface of the CNS, formed by glial and mesothelial cells

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37
Q

What causes an epidural hematoma

A

Skull fracture and injury of the meningeal artery, results in blood between skull and dura mater

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38
Q

What causes a subdural hematoma

A

Injury to bridging veins, results in blood between dura mater and arachnoid matter

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39
Q

What causes a subarachnoid hemorrhage

A

Ruptured aneurism, leads to build up of fluid in subarachnoid space

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40
Q

What is the structure of the cerebral hemispheres

A

The cerebral cortex forms the largest part of the human brain and can be subdivided into the occipital, parietal, frontal and temporal lobes
The surface has regular folds called gyri divided by a series of grooves called sulci

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41
Q

What are the functional subdivisions of the cortex

A

eg visual, somatosensory, auditory

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42
Q

What are secondary areas that are provided informatino by functional subdivisions of the brain

A

eg parietal association area, inferotemporal cortex, limbic regions

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43
Q

What is the corpus callosum and cingulated bundle examples of

A

Long distance fibre tracts connecting areas of the cortex and other brain areas

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44
Q

What is formed by nerve fibres passing into and away from the cortex to the brain stem (esp the thalamus)

A

The internal capsule

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45
Q

What cavities are at the core of the hemisphere

A

Lateral ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid

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46
Q

What is the choroid plexus

A

An epithelial ependyma responsible for producing CSF, found covering strands of tightly coiled vascular tissue within the lateral, 3rd and 4th ventricles

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47
Q

Which ventricle has the choroid plexus that makes the biggest contribution to producing CSF

A

The lateral ventricles

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48
Q

What is the tela choroidea

A

Describes the whole invagination, the functional unit responsible for producing CSF- ‘choroid plexus’ often refers to the tela choreoidea

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49
Q

How does CSF travel between the lateral ventricles to the 4th ventricle

A

Passes from the choroid plexus via the interventricular foramen into the 3rd ventricle, then posteriorly through the cerebral aqueduct into the 4th vesicle

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50
Q

How does the CSF travel from the 4th vesicle to the brain and spinal cord

A

The CSF passes through the foramen of Magendie and the lateral foramina of Luschka (that it uses to communicate with the subarachnoid space) to occupy the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord

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51
Q

What are the arachnoid villi

A

Tufts of arachnoid mater that pierce the inner meningeal layer of the dura- they reabsorb CSF into the vascular system

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52
Q

What is hydrocephalus

A

An increase in cerebrospinal fluid volume, usually resulting from impaired absorption

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53
Q

What is obstructive hydrocephalus

A

Obstruction to CSF flow within the ventricular system

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54
Q

What is communicating hydrocephalus

A

Obstruction to CSF flow beyond the ventrical system ie ventricular CSF communicates with the subarachnoid space

55
Q

What does hydrocephalus cause

A

Raised intracranial pressure, white matter damage and gliotic scarring, if untreated causes grey matter damage
Can cause head expansion and massive ventricular dilation in infants

56
Q

What does the term the limbic cortex encompass

A

The components of the limbic lobe and associated structures eg enthorinal and septal areas, amygdaloid complex and mamillary body

57
Q

What is the basal ganglia

A

A cluster of deep nuclei- includes the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and lentiform nucleus (medial to the internal capsure)

58
Q

What does the thalamus do

A

With the exception of the olfactory projections all afferent info to the cortex relays through the thalamus
There is also a lot of interconnection between the thalamic nuclei and association cortex
Regulates awareness and emotional aspects of sensation

59
Q

What lies below the thalamus

A

The hypothalamus which controls many of our automatic and endocrine functions, has extensive connections with the thalamus and midbrain

60
Q

What is the tectum

A

Formed by the midbrain, and formed from the superior and inferior colliculi

61
Q

What is below the aqueduct of the midbrain

A

The red nucleus and the massive fibre bundles that originate in the cerebral cortex and pass to the pons, medulla and spinal cord

62
Q

What forms the pons

A

The massive fibre tracts and pontine nuclei that relay info from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum (pons=bridge)

63
Q

Where does the medulla lie

A

Beneath the caudal part of the cerebellum

64
Q

What forms the dorsal surface of the medulla

A

The 4th ventricle

65
Q

What lies in the medulla

A

Many of the cranium nerve nuclei, and the fibre tracts passing to and from the spinal cord and between cranial nerve nuclei

66
Q

What 3 functional regions can the cerebellum be subduvided into

A

Vestibulo-cerebellum, spino-cerebellum and ponto-cerebellum

67
Q

What does the vestibulo-cerebellum do

A

Comprises floccular-nodular lobe which receives inputs from the vestibular system concerned with the position of the body in space

68
Q

What does the spino-cerebellum do

A

Lies in the midline of the cerebellum, receives info from the spinal cord and is concerned with the position and movement of the limbs

69
Q

What does the ponto-cerebellum do

A

Forms the lateral cortex via the pontine nuclei, has various functions concerned with pre-programming and monitoring motor programs

70
Q

What are the gyri of the cerebellar cortex called

A

Folia

71
Q

What are the 3 large fibre tracts conveying fibres to and from the cerebellar cortex

A

Inferior peduncle, middle peduncle, superior peduncle

72
Q

What is the midline

A

The invisible line running down the middle of the nervous system

73
Q

What is bilateral symmetry

A

When structures either side of the midline are mirror images of one another

74
Q

What does medial vs lateral mean

A

Medial- structures closer to the midline

Lateral- structures further away from the midline

75
Q

What term describes 2 structures on the same side of the midline

A

Ipsilateral to one another

76
Q

What term describes 2 structures on opposite sides of the midline

A

Contralateral

77
Q

What does the cerebellum mean in Latin

A

‘little brain’

78
Q

How is info processed by the cerebellum different to info processeed by the cerebral hemispheres

A

The left side of the cerebellum controls the movements of the left side of the body and vv

79
Q

What are afferent axons

A

‘Carry to’- somatic or visceral sensory axons bringing info into the CNS

80
Q

What are efferent axons

A

‘Carry from’- axons that emerge from the CNS to innervate muscles and glands

81
Q

What is the ventricular system composed of

A

Fluid-filled caverns and canals inside the brain

82
Q

What is the entire CNS derived from in development

A

The walls of a fluid-filled tube formed at an early stage in embryonic development, with the inside of the tube becoming the adult ventricular system

83
Q

What is a cortex

A

Any collection of neurons forming a thin sheet, usually at the brain’s surface

84
Q

What is a substantia

A

A group of related neurons deep inside the brain with usually less distinct borders than nuclei

85
Q

What is an example of a ganglion

A

Dorsal route ganglia which contains the cell bodies of sensory axons entering the spinal cord via the dorsal routes

86
Q

What is the only cell group in the CNS called a ganglion

A

Basal ganglia, structures lying deep in the cerebrum that control movement

87
Q

What is the only collection of CNS axons called a nerve

A

The optic nerve

88
Q

What is a capsule

A

Collection of axons that connect one side of the brain with the brain stem

89
Q

What is a commissure

A

Any collection of axons tha connect one side of the brain with the other side

90
Q

What does the embryo start as

A

A flat disk with 3 distinct cell layers- endoderm (gives rise to lining of viscera), mesoderm (bones and muscles), and ectoderm (nervous system and skin)

91
Q

What part of the ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system

A

The neural plate

92
Q

What forms in the neural plate

A

A neural groove forms in the neural plate that runs rostral to caudal
The walls of the neural groove are neural folds, which move together and fuse forming the neural tube

93
Q

What is produced as the neural folds come together forming the neural tube

A

Some neural ectoderm is pinched off and lies lateral to the neural tube- the neural crest

94
Q

What do all neurons with cell bodies in the PNS derive from

A

The neural crest

95
Q

How does the mesoderm develop following the formation of the neural crest

A

The mesoderm forms prominent bulges either side of the neural tube called somites, from which the 33 vertebra of the spinal column and related skeletal muscles later deelop

96
Q

What is the name of the process of the neural plate becoming the neural tube

A

Neurulation

97
Q

What is differentiation

A

The process through which structures become mroe compelx and functionally specialised

98
Q

What vesicles does the entire brain derive from

A

3 primary vesicles of the neural tube

99
Q

How do the neurons of the developing forebrain extend

A

Extend axons to communicate with other parts of the nervous system that bundle together to form 3 major white matter systems- the cortical white matter, the corpus callosum and the internal capsule

100
Q

What does the cortical white matter contain

A

All the axons that run to and from the neurons in the cerebral cortex

101
Q

What is the corpus callosum

A

Continuous with the cortical white matter, forms an axonal bridge that links cortical neurons with the 2 cerebral hemispheres

102
Q

How does the cerebellum grow from the rostral hindbrain

A

The tissue along the dorsal lateral wall of the tube grows dorsally and medially until it fuses with its twin on the other side- the resulting flap of brain tissue grows into the cerebellum

103
Q

What are the medullary pyramids

A

A major white matter system along the ventral surface of each side of the medulla

104
Q

What is the pyramidal decussation

A

Near where the medulla joins with the spinal cord, axons in the pyrimadal tract cross from one side to the other

105
Q

How is the spinal canal formed from the caudal neural tube

A

The tissue in the walls of the caudal neural tube expand, constricting the cavity of the tube to form the tiny CSF filled spinal canal

106
Q

What does the grey matter of the spinal cord look like

A

A butterfly- the upper part of the wing is the dorsal horn, the lower part is the ventral horn, and the grey matter between the horns is the intermediate zone

107
Q

What is the white matter in the spinal cord

A

Columns of axons running up and down the spinal cord - the bundles of axons lateral to the spinal grey matter are lateral columns, and the bundles on the ventral surface are ventral columns

108
Q

What does dorsal vs ventral mean

A

Dorsal or posterior means back, ventral or anterior means front

109
Q

What does caudal vs rostral mean

A

Caudal means lower down, rostral means higher up

110
Q

What are the directions described by dorsal/ventral/caudal/rostral relative to

A

The neural tube- when the neural tube enters up into the brain, the directions are tilted eg dorsal now refers to the top of the brain and rostral refers to the front of the brain

111
Q

What does the pons look like

A

The bump outwards at the top of the medulla below the midbrain

112
Q

Where is the cerebellum located

A

Lies behind the pons, at the dorsal end of the brain

113
Q

Where is the diencephalon located

A

Rostral to the midbrain

114
Q

What are unipolar cells

A

Have a single process with many branches- one serves the axon and others act as dendritic receiving structures, meaning they have no dendrites emerging from the soma

115
Q

What are bipolar neurons

A

2 functionally specialised processes, a dendrite and an axon

116
Q

What 4 types of signals at different sites within the cell do all participating sensory and motor cells generate

A

An input signal, an integration (trigger) signal, a conducting signal and an output signal

117
Q

Examples of a disease that only affects one type of neuron

A

Poliomyelitis only affects motor neurons

118
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system composed of

A

Groups of neurons called ganglia and peripheral nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord

119
Q

What are the 2 divisions of the PNS

A

Somatic and autonomic division

120
Q

What does the somatic nervous system do

A

Provides CNS with sensory info about body position and environment

121
Q

What does the somatic nervous system consist of

A

Sensory neurons of the dorsal root and cranial ganglia that innervate the skin/muscles/joints
The cell bodies of these lie outside the spinal cord in dorsal root ganglia, one for each spinal nerve

122
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system do

A

Motor system for viscera, smooth muscles and exocrine glands

123
Q

What are the 3 spatially segregated subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system

A

Sympathetic- body response to stress, parasympathetic-conserve resources and restore resting state, enteric-controls function of smooth muscle of the gut

124
Q

How is the spinal cord segmented into pairs

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves in humans

125
Q

What are spinal nerves

A

Peripheral nerves formed by the joining of the dorsal and ventral roots

126
Q

How many pairs of cranial nerves cary the sensory input/motor output of the brain stem

A

12 pairs…also contains ascending/descending pathways to carry info to and from higher brain regions

127
Q

What does the medulla do

A

Regulates blood pressure and respiration working with the pons

128
Q

What does the cerebellum do

A

Coordinates skeletal muscle during mvoement using info from spinal cord, cerebral cortex and vestibular organs
Maintains posture and controls head and eye movement

129
Q

What does the midbrain do

A

Several regions help direct control of eye movement or motor control of skeletal muscles, essential relay station of auditory and visual signals

130
Q

What do the cerebral hemispheres do

A

Concerned with perceptual, cognitive and higher motor functions as well as emotion and memory

131
Q

What is the cerebral cortex

A

The high wrinkled surface of the cerebral hemisphere

132
Q

What are the 2 subdivisions of the cerebral cortex other than the main lobes

A

Insular cortex and limbic lobe

133
Q

What is the insular cortex

A

Occupies medial wall of lateral sulcus, not visible on the surface of the brain

134
Q

What is the limbic lobe

A

Consists of the medial portions of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes that form a continuous band of cortex overlying the rostral brain stem

Neurophysiology (23 decks)

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