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Y2 Endocrine > Introduction to Endocrinology - Peters > Flashcards

Introduction to Endocrinology - Peters Flashcards

1
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Ductless

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2
Q

What are the four types of hormones?

A
  1. Modified amino acids
  2. Steroids
  3. Peptides
  4. Proteins
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3
Q

What type of hormone tends to have the longest course of action?

A

Steroids

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4
Q

What are three exmples of modified amino acids?

A
  1. Adrenalin
  2. T3
  3. T4
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5
Q

What are three examples of steroid hormones?

A
  1. Cortisol
  2. Progesterone
  3. Testosterone
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6
Q

What are three examples of peptide hormones?

A
  1. ACTH
  2. ADH
  3. Oxytocin
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7
Q

What is an example of a protein hormone?

A

Insulin

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8
Q

What hormones does the anterior pituitary release?

A
  • ACTH
  • GH
  • FSH
  • LH
  • Prolactin
  • TSH
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9
Q

What is the main target and function of ACTH?

A

Adrenal cortex

Metabolism

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10
Q

What is the main target and function of GH (growth hormone)?

A

Liver, bones and muscle

Growth

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11
Q

What is the main target and function of FSH?

A

Gonads

Reproduction

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12
Q

What is the main target and function of LH?

A

Gonads

Reproduction

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13
Q

What is the main target and function of prolactin?

A

Mammary glands

Reproduction

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14
Q

What is the main target and function of TSH?

A

Thyroid

Growth and metabolism

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15
Q

Where is melanotrophin-stimulating hormone (MSH) released from?

A

Intermediate pituitary

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16
Q

What is the main target and function of MSH?

A

Melanocytes

Homeostasis

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17
Q

What hormones does the posterior pituitary produce?

A

ADH and oxytocin

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18
Q

What is the main target and function of ADH?

A

Kidney

Homeostasis

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19
Q

What is the main target and function of oxytocin?

A

Mammary glands and uterus

Reproduction

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20
Q

Where is melatonin released from?

A

Pineal gland

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21
Q

What is the main target and function of melatonin?

A

Hypothalamus

Homeostasis

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22
Q

What hormones does the thyroid gland release?

A

Thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3)

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23
Q

What are the main targets and functions of T3 and T4?

A

Most tissues

Growth and metabolism

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24
Q

What hormones does the parathyroid release?

A

Calcitonin and PTH

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25
Q

What are the main targets and function of calcitonin and PTH?

A

Bone and gut

Homeostasis

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26
Q

Where are insulin and glucagon secreted from?

A

The pancreas

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27
Q

What are the main targets and functions of insulin and glucagon?

A

Liver, muscle and adipose tissue

Growth, metabolism and homeostasis

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28
Q

What hormones are produced in the adrenal cortex?

A

Glucocorticoids including cortisol and aldosterone

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29
Q

What are the main targets and functions of glucocorticoids?

A

Multiple

Growth and metabolism

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30
Q

What is the main target and function of aldosterone?

A

Kidney

Homeostasis

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31
Q

What hormones does the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenalin (norepinephrine)

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32
Q

What are the main targets and functions of adrenalin and noradrenalin?

A

Multiple

Homeostasis and metabolism

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33
Q

Where is testosterone produced and what is its main target and function?

A
  • Produced by gonads
  • Testes
  • Reproduction
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34
Q

What hormones do the female gonads produce?

A

Oestradiol and progesterone

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35
Q

What is the main target and function for oestradiol and progesterone?

A

Ovaries and uterus

Reproduction

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36
Q

In pregnancy, what hormones does the placenta produce?

A

hCG, oestradiol and progesterone

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37
Q

What is the main target and function of hCG?

A

Uterus

Reproduction

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38
Q

Describe the potency of hormones

A

Hormones have a high potency

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39
Q

True or false

Hormones act at a high concentration over large distances to activate specific receptors

A

FALSE

Hormones act at a LOW concentration over large distances to acivate specific receptors

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40
Q

What does a signal transduction cascade typically cause?

A

Amplification of original signal

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41
Q

Describe an endocrine gland transduction cascade

A

Endocrine gland –> hormone –> activated receptor –> signal transduction –> response –> action terminated

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42
Q

How is the action terminated in a transduction cascade?

A

By enzyme mediated metabolic inactivation in the liver OR at the sites of action

43
Q

Describe a complemntary action of hormones

A

A complementary action of several hormones regulates many complex physiological functions on both short and long term scales

e.g. insulin, GH, IGF-1 and sex steroids are all essential long term for normal growth

44
Q

Does glucagon antagonise glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue?

A

No, adrenalin does

45
Q

How does insulin decrease plasma glucose levels?

A

By inhibiting hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

46
Q

true or false

insulin stimulates glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue

A

True

47
Q

How does glucagon increase plasma glucose levels?

A

By stimulating hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

48
Q

What are amines made from?

A

Amin acids

49
Q

Where are amines stored?

A

vesicles

50
Q

When are amines released?

A

In response to Ca2+ dependent exocytosis

51
Q

Are amino acids transported free in plasma?

A

Yes, they are hydrophillic

52
Q

How are peptides and protein hormones made?

A

Pre-synthesised from longer precursor

53
Q

Where are peptides and proteins stored?

A

Vesicles

54
Q

When are peptides and proteins released?

A

In response to Ca2+ dependent exocytosis

55
Q

How does an active form of a peptide/protein hormone arise?

A

The inactive form is usually cleaved by an enzyme to reveal the active form

e.g. preproinsulin –> proinsulin –> insulin

56
Q

Are peptide/protein hormones transported free in plasma?

A

Yes, they are hydrophillic. They enter the interstitual fluid then the blood

57
Q

Where are steroid hormones stored?

A

They are not, they are synthesised and secreted on demand

There is NO STORAGE in granules or vesicles

58
Q

What happens when a cell is stimulated to produce steroids?

A

Increase cell’s uptake and availability of cholestrol

Increase conversion speed of cholestrol –> pregnenolone

59
Q

What must happen in order to stimulate hormone production?

A

Activate the receptor

60
Q

Are steroid hormones hydrophillic or hydrophobic?

A

Hydrophobic

61
Q

How do steroid hormones travel through the plasma?

A

They are able to diffuse through the plasma membrane and into the circulation.

Steroid hormones are mainly bound to plasma proteins when transported in plasma.

62
Q

Where are receptors for modified amino acids, proteins and peptides found?

A

On the plasma membrane

63
Q

Where are receptors for steroid hormones found?

A

Within the cytoplasm

64
Q

Describe paracrine chemical signalling

A

secretory cell releases a hormone which acts locally and doesnt go into systemic circulation e.g. somatastatin

65
Q

What are three functions of carrier proteins?

A
  1. Increase amount transported in the blood
  2. Provide a reservoir of hormone
  3. Extend the half life of the hormone - longer duration of action
66
Q

What does extending the half life of a hormone result in?

A

A longer duration of action

67
Q

What is the carrier protein for cortisol?

A

Cortisol brinding hormone

Bind cortisol selectively as well as some aldosterone

68
Q

What is the carrier protein for T4?

A

Thyroxine binding hormone

Binds thyroxine selectively (as well as some T3)

69
Q

What is the carrier protein for testosterone and oestradiol?

A

Sex steroid binding hormone

Binds mainly testosterone and oestradiol

70
Q

What are two examples of general carrier proteins?

A

Albumin and transthyretin

71
Q

What is albumin a carrier protein for?

A

many steroid and thyroxine

72
Q

What is transthyretin a carrier for?

A

Binds thyroxine and some steroids

73
Q

Why do proteins and peptides not require carrier proteins for transport?

A

They are soluble in plasma

74
Q

True or false

Free and bound hormone are in equilibrium

A

true

75
Q

What is the only type of hormone that can cross the capillary wall to activate receptors in target tissue?

A

Free hormone

76
Q

How are surges in hormone secretion buffered?

A

By binding to carriers

This means that the free concentration does not rise abruptly

77
Q

Free hormone removed from plasma by elimination is replaced by what?

A

Bound hormone dissociating from carrier proteins

78
Q

What is the primary determinant of plasma concentration of a hormone?

A

rate of secretion

79
Q

Describe the pathway of negative feedback

A
  • Hypothalamus
    • Secretes the corticotropin-releasing hormone
  • Anterior pituitary
    • Secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone
  • Adrenal cortex
    • Secretes cortisol
  • Multiple physiological effects

This is a simple negative feedback loop

80
Q

Define tropic

A

A hormone that acts upon another endocrine gland to regulate its secretion of hormone

81
Q

Describe neuroendocrine secretion

A

Elicits a sudden burst in secretion to meet a specific stimulus e.g. stress

82
Q

Describe plasma cortisol concentrations throughout the day

A

Low at night and at its highest around midday

83
Q

What are the main routes of elimination of hormones?

A

There are several routes

Generally hormones are metabolised by the liver and excreted by the kidneys

84
Q

True or false

Plasma conc. of hormone = elimination - secretion

A

FALSE

Plasma conc. of hormone = secretion - elimination

85
Q

What is the half life of amines e.g. adrenaline?

A

Seconds

86
Q

What is the half life of proteins and peptides?

A

Minutes

87
Q

What is the half life of steroids and thyroid hormones?

A

Hours to days

This is due to extensive protein binding

88
Q

What are two examples of cell surface receptors?

A

G protein coupled receptors

Receptor kinases

89
Q

How do intracellular receptors work?

A

The ligand is lipophillic allowing diffusion across the plasma membrane

90
Q

What is an example of intracellular receptors?

A

Nuclear receptors

91
Q

What are G-protein coupled receptors activated by?

A

Amine and some proteins/peptides

92
Q

What are the major signalling pathways of G-protein coupled receptors?

A

Involve coupling to Gs, Gi, Gq

93
Q

What are receptor kinases activated by?

A

Some proteins/peptides

94
Q

Nuclear receptors can be subdivided. What are these subdivisions?

A
  • Class 1
  • Class 2
  • Hybrid class
95
Q

What are class 1 nuclear receptors activated by?

A

Many steroid hormones

96
Q

Where are unactivated class 1 nuclear receptors found?

A

In the absence of an activating ligand, these are mainly located in the cytoplasm, bound to inhibitory heat shock proteins

97
Q

When class 1 nuclear receptors are activated, where are they found?

A

They move to the nucleus when activated

98
Q

What are class 2 nuclear receptors activated by?

A

Mostly by lipids

99
Q

Where are class 2 nuclear receptors found?

A

In the nucleus

100
Q

What are hybrid class nuclear receptors activated by?

A

T3 and other substances

101
Q

What nuclear receptor has a similar function to class 1?

A

Hybrid class

102
Q

Describe signalling via nuclear receptors

A
  1. Steroid hormones enter cell via diffusion across plasma membrane (lipophillic)
  2. within the cell, they combine with an intracellular receptor producing dissociation of inhibitory heat shock protein

(in case of steroid receptors, but not thyroid, the inactive receptors are located in cytoplasm)

  1. Receptor steroid complex moves to nucleus
  2. Forms a dimer and binds to hormone response elements in DNA
  3. Transcription of specific genes is either switched on or off to alter mRNA levels + the rate of synthesis of mediator proteins
103
Q

Define transactivation

A

The transcription of specific genes is switched on

104
Q

Define transpression

A

transcription of specific genes is switched off

Y2 Endocrine (6 decks)

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