Introduction & Research Methods

Question 1

Goal in Science (theory-data cycle)

Answer 1

• coming up with theory and test it
  -> disproving a theory
  1. observation/existing theory
  2. hypothesis (expected outcome of study)
  3. generating predictions; data evaluation (new theories, new hypothesis, …)
  -> we cannot prove theories (just say if they are correct) -> never find full truth

Question 2

hypothesis testing trade-off

Answer 2

internal validity: experimental control (causal statement)

vs.

external validity: generalizability (allowing for general statement -> applying to other groups/all)

Question 3

Observational studies (correlation research)

Answer 3

-> data collection:
no one knowing -> natural behavior
obvious -> maybe less natural

1. naturalistic observation; watching people in the wild (unstructured)
   -> generalizable, no impact caused, no internal validity, might have biased observations (influencing)
2. participant observation: sociologist incorporates in group and watches behavior if members
   -> in between controlled and field
3. structured observation: lab studies (planned happenings)
   -> high internal validity, maybe not very generalizable

-> replication is key to science

Question 4

Festingers study (when prophecy fails)

Answer 4

• attitude changes (alien cult idea)
  -> solved discomfort of misbelief by getting to the belief that they saved the world
  -> external validity; human decisions can be shaped towards being positive

Question 5

correlational study types, beyond observational studies

Answer 5

• surveys; quick data collection, interview studies (take long? not always truthful)
• analyzing pre-existing data; associations, not causation! (there might be an in between variable causing that effect)
• directionality if correlation

Question 6

experiments

Answer 6

= to get rid of all sorts of other explanations (maximize internal validity) -> not real world representative

Question 7

dependent variable

Answer 7

measured; value dependent on independent variable

Question 8

independent variable

Answer 8

manipulated; different combinations (all needed to make causal statement)

Question 9

control variable

Answer 9

same experience for all participant (just independent variable varies)

Question 10

confounding variables

Answer 10

any variable systematically varying with the independent variable that is out of what you wanted to study -> important to ensure that they are not there

Question 11

random - sampling vs assignment

Answer 11

getting random sample around the world vs random assignment to independent variable manipulation (group; chance that kind of people in groups are same)

Question 12

experimental control (2 components)

Answer 12

1. cover story; story told to participants (deception = lying within that -> avoid confounders)
2. confederate; routing the experiment, ensures same experience for all

Question 13

brainstorming study - disruptions vs no disruptions

Answer 13

• lab experiment, study alone, with group, alone with interruptions (IV)
• DV; quality of brainstorming ideas
  -> people alone showed better brainstorming skills than those with interruptions of both kinds -> no significant difference between type of interruption -> causal statement allowed (fact)

Question 14

Quasi vs field experiments

Answer 14

quasi = no random assignment possible
-> interested in subject variable (reduces causal claim option)

field = no variable control
-> messy, uncertainty in data
-> real-world -> generalizable (no causal claims though)

Question 15

peeing in public (field experiment)
-> quasi-field experiment when demographically data are collected in the debrief

Answer 15

• invasion of private space (higher arousal; not thinking about peeing anymore)?

Question 16

send selection bias

Answer 16

select sample as needed -> not random
-> cannot be used and be generalized to real world

Question 17

self-presentation bias (social desirability)

Answer 17

= people covering up good things about themselves
- ensure anonymity
- hide part of study
- secret camera
- bogus pipeline = lie detector -> body arousal measurements
-> being in a situation that feels real let’s people behave as normally as they would in the real world

Question 18

confirmation bias

Answer 18

having certain beliefs & expectations (of the world) -> setting up experiment in a way to find these things

-> experimental demand (demand characteristics) = people get cues from researcher to behave in a certain way

Question 19

research ethics

Answer 19

• need board approval
• informed consent (withdraw any time)
• debriefing after experiment

-> people easily take in roles in an experiment
-> replication crisis -> credibility crisis (malfunctioning research methods)

Question 20

ensure replication/credibility

Answer 20

• pre register (research proposal to stick to)
• open data (so others can see/control)
• open materials (to allow for replication)
  -> helps to capture mistakes