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Genetics Test I - Jourdan > Introduction, Chromosome Structure, Mitosis > Flashcards

Introduction, Chromosome Structure, Mitosis Flashcards

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0
Q

Genome:

A

Is a complete set of genetic instructions for any organism

Can either be RNA or DNA

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1
Q

Who was Archibald Garrod?

A

First to recognize that albinism was an inheritable trait that was located on a specific chromosome

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2
Q

The coding system for genomic information is _______?

A

Very similar among organisms

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3
Q

What are the three major subdivisions of genetics?

A

Transmission, molecular, and population genetics

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4
Q

What is transmission genetics?

A

Encompasses basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next

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5
Q

What is molecular genetics?

A

Concerns the chemical nature of the gene itself and how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and expressed

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6
Q

What is population genetics?

A

Explores the genetic composition of groups of individual members of the same species and how that composition changes geographically and with the passage of time. It is fundamentally the study of evolution

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7
Q

What are the early theories relating to inheritance?

A

Pangenesis, inheritance of acquired characteristics, preformationism, and blending inheritance

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8
Q

What is pangenesis?

A 
Developed by Greek philosophers
Specific particles (gemmules) carry information from various parts of the body to reproductive organs (sperm,egg), from which they are passed to the embryo at the moment of conception
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9
Q

What is the Germ-plasm theory?

A

According to the germ-plasm theory, germ-line tissue in the reproductive organs that contains a complete set of genetic information that is transferred directly to the gametes

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10
Q

What is the inheritance of acquired characteristics theory?

A

Primarily made famous by Lamarck
Traits acquired in a person’s lifetime become incorporated into that person’s hereditary information and are passed on to offspring

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11
Q

What is the theory of preformationism?

A

According to preformationism, inside the egg or sperm there exists a fully formed miniature adult, a homunculus, which simply enlarges in the course of development.
Preformationism meant that all traits were inherited from only one parent

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12
Q

What is the theory of blending inheritance?

A

Offspring are a blend of parental traits and the genetic material itself blends. Once blended, genetics differences cannot be separated out in future generations.
**yellow+blue=green; cant separate green to get yellow and blue again

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13
Q

What is cell theory?

A

All life is composed of cells, and cells arise only from cells

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14
Q

What is mendelian inheritance?

A

Traits are inherited in accord with defined principles

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15
Q

What early concepts of heredity are correct?

A

Germ-plasm theory, cell theory and mendelian inheritance

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16
Q

What are the top 6 model genetic organisms?

A 
Drosophila melanogaster - Fruit fly
Escherichia coli - Bacterium 
Caenorhabditis elegans - Nematode
Arabidopsis thaliana - Thale-cress plant
Mus musculus - House mouse
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Baker's yeast
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17
Q

What are model genetic organisms?

A

Organisms with characteristics that make them useful for genetic analysis

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18
Q

What properties, in general, make the top 6 organisms valuable as model genetic organisms?

A

Short generation time
Production of numerous progeny
The ability to carry out controlled genetic crosses
The ability to be reared in a laboratory environment
The availability of numerous genetic variants
There is an accumulated body of knowledge about their genetic systems

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19
Q

How can studying genetic model organisms help in understanding human genetics?

A

Research on bacteria, yeast, insects, worms, fish, rodents and plants has shown that the basic operating principles are nearly the same in all living things. So a finding made in fruit flies can shed light on a biological process in people.

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20
Q

What are two basic types of cells?

A

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic

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21
Q

What is the fundamental unit of heredity?

A

Gene

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22
Q

A gene that specifies a characteristic may exist in several forms called ______?

A

Alleles

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23
Q

Genes, along with environmental factors, determine what?

A

Expression of traits.

**Genes confer phenotype

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24
Q

What is genetic information carried in?

A

RNA and DNA

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25
Q

Where are genes located?

A

Chromosomes

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26
Q

How do chromosomes separate?

A

Through the processes of mitosis and meiosis

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27
Q

Where is genetic information from DNA transferred to?

A

To RNA then to protein

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28
Q

What are mutations?

A

Permanent changes in genetic information that can be passed from once cell to another or from parent to offspring

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29
Q

What is evolution?

A

Genetic change

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30
Q

Some traits are affected by what? Give an example

A

by multiple genes that interact in complex ways with environmental factors. Human height, for example, is affected by hundreds of genes as well as environmental factors such as nutrition.

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31
Q

Gene:

A

an inherited factor that determines a characteristic.

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32
Q

Allele:

A

One of two or more alternate forms of a gene

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33
Q

Phenotype

A

The appearance or manifestation of a character

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34
Q

Genotype

A

Set of alleles possessed by an individual organism

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35
Q

Chromosome

A

A thread-like structure of nucleic acids and proteins, carrying genetic information in the form of genes

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36
Q

Mitosis

A

A type of cell division that results in two alike daughter cells

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37
Q

Meiosis

A

A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent

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38
Q

Flow of genetic information

A

DNA——–>RNA———>Protein

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39
Q

What are the characteristics of prokaryotes?

A
  • Nucleus is absent
  • 1 to 10um in diameter
  • Usually a single circular DNA molecule
  • Histones absent in eubacteria, but is in some archaea
  • Small amount of DNA
  • No membrane-bound organelles
  • No cytoskeleton
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40
Q

What are the classes of prokaryotes?

A

Eubacteria and Archaea

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41
Q

What types of cells can be unicellular or multicellular with membrane-bound organelles?

A

Eukaryotes

42
Q

What are some of the implications of all organisms having similar genetic systems?

a. That all life forms are genetically related
b. That research findings on one organism’s gene function can often be applied to other organisms
c. That genes from one organism can often exist and thrive in another organism?
d. All the above

A

d. all the above

43
Q

Define the term:
Inherited determinant of the phenotype
Elements that control traits
Located at a specific position on a chromosome referred to as a locus

A

Gene

44
Q

Describe prokaryotic cell reproduction

A

Simple division: separation of replicated circular chromosome
Origin of replication
There is a high rate of replication

45
Q

What are the characteristics of eukaryotes?

A 
Membrane-bound nucleus
10-100um in diameter
Multiple linear DNA molecules
Histones
Large amount of DNA
Membrane-bound organelles
Cytoskeleton
46
Q

What are eukaryote chromosomes associated with?

A

Histones to form tightly packed DNA

47
Q

What is DNA + histones?

A

chromatin

48
Q

What doe histone proteins limit?

A

Accessibility of enzymes and other proteins to copy and read DNA

49
Q

What doe Histones enable?

A

DNA to fit within the nucleus

50
Q

What must eukaryotic DNA be separate from before genetic information can be accessed?

A

Histones

51
Q

Homologous chromosomes:

A

Two chromosomes of a pair share the same loci. Eukaryotic chromosomes are typically found in pairs

52
Q

A set of chromosomes consists of what?

A

One member of each pair of chromosomes

53
Q

Diploid cells

A

Two complete sets of chromosomes

54
Q

Haploid (monoploid)

A

Cell has a single complete set of chromosomes

55
Q

Tetraploid

A

Cells that have four complete sets of chromosomes

56
Q

Triploid

A

Cells that have three complete sets of chromosomes

57
Q

Centromere

A

Serves as the attachment point for spindle microtubules

58
Q

What are the four classes of chromosome location?

A

Metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric

59
Q

Short arm of a chromosome is called a ______

A

p arm

60
Q

Long arm of a chromosome is called a _____

A

q arm

61
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?

A

23

62
Q

One chromosome can be either ______ or _______

A

One chromatid or two sister chromatids

63
Q

What are the stable ends of chromosomes?

A

Telomeres

64
Q

What is a constricted region of the chromosome where the kinetochores form and the spindle microtubules attach?

A

centromere

65
Q

What are four characteristics of telomeres?

A

Located at the natural ends of a linear chromosome
Provide chromosome stability
May limit cell division
May play a role in aging and cancer

66
Q

What is a telomerase? What is its function?

A

A ribonucleoprotein that is an enzyme that adds DNA sequence repeats (TTAGGG).
It allows the DNA to be completely replicated; preventss shortening of chromosome

67
Q

Origins of replication:

A

Are sites where DNA synthesis begins

68
Q

What are the 2 major results of mitosis?

A

There is usually an increase in cell numbers

The resulting daughter cells are genetically identical

69
Q

During embryonic development, what does mitosis produce?

A

Produces a stockpile of cells for embryogenesis

70
Q

Organismal growth occurs through what process?

A

Mitotic activity (hyperplasia)

71
Q

What provides a mechanism for the replacement of damaged or worn-out cells?

A

Mitosis

72
Q

The cell cycle consists of a number of stages that are a part of a continuum. Name the stages

A 
G-0 phase
G-1 phase
S phase
G-2 phase
M phase
73
Q

What are the stages in the cell cycle that are a part of Interphase?

A

G-1, S, and G-2

74
Q

What are the G-1 phase activities?

A

First gap/growth phase
Concentration of G-1(s)-cyclins increases
G-1-cyclin binds to inactive cdc2 kinase
MPF is activated at the end of this phase and leads to activities needed for DNA synthesis

75
Q

Which stage is highly variable with regard to time?

A

G-1 phase

76
Q

What is the G-0 phase?

A

Term used to describe the condition of a cell that has been taken out of the classical cell cycle

77
Q

What are the S phase activities?

A 
DNA synthesis 
Chromosome replication
G-1-cyclins degraded
cdc2 kinase inactive
B(M)-cyclin concentration begins to increase towards end of S phase
78
Q

How long does the S phase last?

A

About 7 hours

79
Q

What are the G-2 activities?

A

Further preparation for mitotic division
B(M)-cyclins bind to cdc2 kinase
Activated MPF leads to activities necessary for mitosis

80
Q

How long does G-2 phase last?

A

about 2 hours

81
Q

What activities happen during M phase?

A

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
B(M)-cyclin is degraded towards the end of the phase
Cdc2 kinase becomes inactivated

82
Q

How long does the M phase lasts?

A

.7 hours

83
Q

What state are the chromosomes in during Interphase?

A

Decondensed

84
Q

Before the S phase of cell cycle, each chromosome consists of _______

A

1 chromatid

85
Q

After S phase of a cell cycle, each chromosome consists of ________

A

2 chromatids bound by centromere

86
Q

What are prophase activities?

A

Centrioles move to opposite poles
Spindle apparatus is organized
Nuclear membrane begins to disintegrate
Chromosomes become condensed

87
Q

When are chromosomes visible as separate entities with light microscope?

A

During Mitosis when they become condensed

88
Q

What are the metaphase characteristics?

A

Chromosomes are located at center of cell along equatorial plate (usually)
Spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores
Centromeres divide at the end of metaphase
Chromosome number has doubled

89
Q

What happens during Anaphase?

A

Daughter chromatids move to opposite poles

90
Q

What happens during Telophase?

A

Chromosomes begin to uncoil
Nuclear membranes reform
Cytokinesis usually occurs and two daughter cells are separated

91
Q

What happens if cytokinesis does not occur?

A

There many still be two nuclei, but they will be located in a single cell (endomitosis)

92
Q

What are characteristics of embryonic cells?

A

These cells proceed immediately to the next cell cycle with little time in the G-1 phase
Cell does not grow or differentiate

93
Q

What are examples of embryonic cells?

A

Embryonic cells and some types of tumor cells

94
Q

What are characteristics of labile cells?

A

These cells spend more time in the G-1 stage and grow and become differentiated

95
Q

What are examples of Labile cells?

A

Epithelial cells in the gut lining and epidermis

Hematopoietic cells

96
Q

What stage are non-dividing cells in?

A

These cells become permanently locked in the G-1 stage and never divide again

97
Q

What are examples of non-dividing cells?

A

Skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells, neurons

98
Q

Karyokinesis:

A

Physical division of nuclear material

99
Q

Cytokinesis:

A

Physical division of cytoplasmic material

100
Q

Endomitosis:

A

Karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis

101
Q

What does endomitosis result in?

A

An increase in ploidy

102
Q

Ploidy:

A

Increase in complete sets of chromosomes

Genetics Test I - Jourdan (6 decks)

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