Introduction, Cell physiology, body tissues, cellular adaption and cell death, inflammation and tissue repair Flashcards
first 3 slideshows before Quiz 1 cut off
1
Q
Physiology
A
mechanism of human body functioning
- different systems
2
Q
pathology
A
branch of medicine, investigates the essential nature of the disease, especially changes in body tissues and organs that cause or are caused by the disease
3
Q
clinical pathology
A
pathology applied to solution of clinical lproblems, esp. use of lab methods in clinical diagnosis
- body tissues
- body fluids
4
Q
histology
A
microscopic study of tissues
5
Q
pathophysiology
A
study of functional changes that occur in the body as a result of an injury, disorder or disease; often referred to as study of the mechanism of disease
6
Q
ascites
A
fluid in abdominal cavity
7
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pathogenesis
A
development of cellular events and reactions and other pathologic mechanism that occur in the development of the disease, basically how a disease develops
8
Q
what is a cell?
A
building block of living organism
basic unit of the body
- more than 100 trillion cells
9
Q
cell membrane/plasma membrane job
A
- protects the cell from environment while also being selective permeable; lipid bilayer
- cells have gates that open and close by proteins, chemical signals and electric charges
10
Q
cytoplasm is
A
colorless viscous liquid containing water, nutrients, ions, dissolved gases and wastes products
11
Q
organelles in cell (little organs)
A
nucleus, nucleolus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, golgi proteins, lysosomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton
12
Q
nucleus
A
control center of cells, regulates cell growth, metabolism and reproduction, contains genetic information (DNA)
13
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nucleolus
A
produces RNA (translates genetic information)
14
Q
endoplasmic reticulum
A
synthesis enzyme and proteins, lipids, and hormones
-smooth and rough
15
Q
smooth ER
A
no ribosomes attached
16
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rough ER
A
ribosomes attached
17
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ribosomes
A
aid in protein production
18
Q
golgi proteins
A
sorts, chemically modifies, packages proteins produced on the endoplasmic reticulum
19
Q
lysosomes
A
digests excess or worn out organelles, food particles, virus, bacteria
20
Q
mitochondria
A
complete breakdown of glucose and produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), powerhouse of cells
21
Q
cytoskeleton
A
internal support, helps with transportation
22
Q
body tissues
A
structure and function of cells are specialized (differentiation) depending on where they are present in the body
23
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group of cells makes up
A
tissues
24
Q
types of tissues in the body
A
nervous, muscle, epithelial, connective
25
nervous tissue parts
neurons
26
muscle tissue types
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
27
connective tissue types
blood cells, bone cells, fibroblasts, elastin, collagen
28
epithelial tissue covers
the outer surface of body and lines GI, respiratory, GU tract, secretory portion of glands and ducts
29
functions of epithelial tissue
- serve as barrier, physical protection
- absorption (villi)
- filtration (cilia)
- secretion
- permeability
- regeneration
30
types of epithelial tissue according to shape
squamous (thin/flat)
cuboidal (cube)
columnar (column)
31
where is cuboidal epithelial tissue found
surface of ovary and thyroid
32
where is columnar epithelial tissue found
lines intestine
33
types of epithelial tissue based on number of layers
- simple
- stratified
- pseudostratified
34
simple epithelial tissue has ______ layer(s)
1 layer
35
stratified epithelial tissue has ______ layer(s)
multiple
36
pseudostratified epithelial tissue has ______ layer(s)
looks like multiple but is 1 layer
37
simple epithelial tissue has _____ layer of cells
single
38
what is simple epithelial tissue designed for
filtration, absorption, or secretion
39
simple squamous covers...
lines blood vessels (endothelial cells), lymph nodes, and alveoli of lungs
40
simple cuboidal covers...
glands
41
simple columnar covers...
digestive tract
42
simple cuboital
43
columnar
44
stratified epithelial tissue
more than one layer of cells with deepest layer resting on the basement membrane, designed to protect body surfaces (lining of mouth and skin surfaces
45
types of stratified epithelial tissue
stratified squamous
stratified cuboidal
stratified columnar (rare)
46
stratified squamous covers...
skin
47
stratified cuboidal covers...
sweat glands, salivary glands
48
stratified columnar covers...
conjunctiva
49
stratified squamous
50
stratified cuboital
51
stratified columnar
52
pseudostratified columnar ciliated
all cells are in contact with underlying intercellular matrix but some do not extend to the surface
53
pseudostratified epithelial tissue
54
transitional epithelium
stratified epithelium with cells that can change shape and become thinner when the tissue is stretched
lining of organs that constantly change volume (urinary bladder, urethra, ureters)
55
transitional epithelium
56
what does connective tissue do
connects/binds/supports various tissues, fills body spaces, produce blood cells
- produce extracellular matrix
57
components of connective tissue
cells (fibroblast, macrophages, lymphocytes)
extracellular protein fibers (collagenous fibers, elastic fibers)
ground substance (unstructured material filling spaces between cells and containing fibers)
58
types of connective tissue
- tendons, ligaments
- adipose tissue
- cartilage
- bone
- blood and lymph
59
Marfan Syndrome
genetic condition that affects CT
can damage blood vessels, heart, eyes, skin, lungs, and bones
RARE (1 in 5000)
mutation changes the proteins needed to build CT
60
characteristics of Marfan Syndrome
- tall and slender build
- disproportionately long arms, legs, and fingers
- high arched palate
- nearsightedness
- abnormally curved spine
- flat feet
- aortic aneurysm
61
muscle tissue
contraction, movement of body and its parts and changes in size and shape of internal organs
62
3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
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skeletal muscle characteristics
- long and cylindrical
- striated
- voluntary
64
smooth muscle characteristics
- nonstriated
- spindle shape
- involuntary
- intercalated disks/gap junctions
65
cardiac muscle characteristics
- shorter, branched
- involuntary
- striated
- intercalated disks/gap junctions
66
skeletal muscle
67
smooth muscle
68
cardiac muscle
69
red
perimysium
70
orange
fascicle
71
yellow
endomysium
72
green
sarcolemma
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blue
epimysium
74
purple
myofibril
75
red
z-line
76
orange
h-zone
77
yellow
A band
78
green
I band
79
blue
M line
80
purple
myosin (thick) filaments
81
pink
actin (thin) filaments
82
83
heads have actin-binding site that is necessary for
cross bridge formation
hydrolyzes ATP
84
tropomyosin covers
binding sites on actin
85
there are ___ types of troponin
3
86
troponin T
attaches troponin to tropomyosin
87
Troponin I
inhibits the interaction between action and myosin
88
troponin C
calcium-binding protein
89
sarcolemma
muscle cell membrane
90
transverse T tubule
extensive network of muscle cell membrane
invaginates deep into the muscle fiber
carry depolarization from action potential at muscle cell surface to the interior of the fiber
91
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
- myofibrils are surrounded by SR
- site for storage and release of calcium for excitation-contraction coupling
- calcium is accumulated in the SR by the action of calcium ATPase in the SR
- pumps calcium from ICF of muscle fiber into the interior of SR
92
Steps in excitation-contraction coupling
1. action potential in muscle membrane propagated to T tubules, that carry depolarization from surface to the interior of the muscle fiber
2. depolarization of T tubules
3. open SR calcium release channels
4. increase intracellular calcium concentration
5. calcium binds troponin C
6. tropomyosin moves and allows interaction of actin and myosin
7. cross-bridge cycling
8. contraction/force generation
93
ATP =
force/energy
94
what is sliding filament theory
how muscles contract by describing the movement of actin and myosin filaments within muscle fibers
95
what happens to the A band during contraction of muscle?
A band remains the same
96
cardiac muscle cells are called
cardiomyocytes
97
intercalated disks contain
gap junctions that allow coordinated contraction of heart muscle
98
increase in troponin and other cardiac enzymes in blood used to help diagnose
heart attack
99
normal range of troponin
below 0.04ng/ml
100
heart attack range of troponin
above 0.40ng/ml
101
smooth muscle is an
involuntary muscle
102
smooth muscle lacks striations because
thick and thin filaments are not organized in sarcomeres
103
smooth muscle is found in
walls of hollow organs
- GI tract
- bladder
- uterus
- bronchioles
- eye muscles
104
functions of smooth muscle
to produce motility and maintain tension
105
what does smooth muscle rely on for protein binding
calmodulin
106
what shape is smooth muscle
spindle shape
107
cells are constantly challenged with stressors like
changes in oxygenation, temp, toxins, etc.
108
irreversible cell injury results
cell death
109
reversible cell injury results
normal cell adaptation
cell is able to recover homeostasis after the removal of stress
110
cellular adaptation
adapt by undergoing changes in size, number, type
111
can cells reverse their changes
potentially
112
adaptations to cells may lead to
- atrophy
- hypertrophy
- hyperplasia
- metaplasia
- dysplasia
113
red
normal
114
orange
atrophy (decreased cell size)
115
yellow
hypertrophy (increased cell size)
116
green
hyperplasia (increased cell number)
117
blue
metaplasia (conversion of one cell type to another)
118
purple
dysplasia (disorderly growth)
119
Atrophy characteristics
- decrease in cell size
- reduce oxygen consumptionc
120
causes of atrophy
-disuse (casted)
- denervation
- inadequate nutrition
- ischemia or decreased blood flow
121
physiologic atrophy
ageing
122
pathologic atrophy
muscle wasting due to spinal cord in injury
123
cerebral atrophy
cerebrum shrinking
- common feature of many diseases that affect the brain
- TBI
- infections
124
hypertrophy characteristics
- increase in cell size
- due to blockages
- seen in cardiac and skeletal muscle (cannot divide and form more cells)
125
cause of hypertrophy
increase in workload
increase in growth/trophic signals
increased hormonal output
126
result of normal physiologic hypertrophy
breast cells during pregnancy; increased muscle after exercises
127
result of abnormal pathologic hypertrophy
left ventricular hypertrophy
128
hyperplasia
increase in number of cells in an organ or tissue
- calluses
129
normal hyperplasia
breast enlargement during puberty, callus after prolonged use
130
abnormal hyperplasia
endometrial hyperplasia
131
metaplasia
one adult cell type is replaced by another adult cell type
132
what causes metaplasia
chronic irritation/inflammation
133
what is an example of metaplasia
GERD (causes narrowing of the esophagus
134
dysplasia
deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cell that vary in size, shape, and organization
135
dysplasia is a precursor of what
cancer
136
what if the cells do not have the ability to adapt to stressors?
the cells will die
137
what are reversible cell injuries
swelling, membrane blebs
138
what are irreversible cell injuries
alteration in cell nucleus, mitochondria, and lysosomes
rupture of cell membrane
dead cells release contents into the ECF
139
Creatinine kinasae (CK-MM) found mostly in
skeletal muscles
140
Creatinine kinasae (CK-MB) found mostly in
heart muscle
141
Creatinine kinasae (CK-BB) found mostly in
brain tissue
142
necrosis
occurs in irreversibly damaged cells
- initiate inflammation
- due to stress
143
apoptosis
programmed cell death
- does not initiate inflammation
- suicide of cell
- plan of the body for normal aging
144
types of inflammation
acute and chronic
145
what are the body's lines of defense
- skin and mucous membrane
- inflammation
- immunity
146
neutrophil
fast acting
defense against foreign substances like bacteria, fungi
147
monocytes
baby macrophages
immature macrophages, clean up debris/damaged cells
148
eosinophils
attack parasites, cancer cells and play a role in asthma and allergy
149
basophils
sneezing
produce allergic responses
150
lymphocytes (T and B)
"killing"
immune system
produce antibodies, kills antigens
151
what is inflammation?
all disease process cause injury and healing occurs with an effective inflammatory response
host's protective response
add -itis
152
acute inflammation
appears within minutes to hours
153
chronic inflammation
days to years
altered inflammatory response
154
cardinal signs of inflammation
redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function
155
rubor =
redness
156
tumor =
swelling
157
calor =
heat
158
dolor =
pain
159
functio lasea =
loss of function
160
acute inflammation occurs in two phases
vascular and cellular phases
161
vascular phase of inflammation
tissue edema
momentary vasoconstriction followed rapidly by vasodilation
permeability increases
162
increased blood flow + increased permeability =
loss of exudate
(causes swelling, pain, and impaired function)
163
what is exudate?
protein rich fluid, fibrin, leucocytes
164
fibrinogen is an abundant plasma protein that
provides the main building blocks for the clot
165
cellular response events in sequence
chemotaxis (rolling), adhesion to the endothelium (find hole), transmigration across the endothelium (fill hole)
166
cells that are active in the cellular phase
- leukocytes/WBCs
- red blood cells
- platelets
- connective tissue cells (fibroblasts)
- elastin and collagen
167
neutrophils
type of WBC, earliest phagocytic responders
168
monocytes
immature macrophages
169
macrophages
type of WBC, phagocytes associated with chronic inflammation
170
red blood cells carry
oxygen to tissues
171
platelets do what
trap harmful substances, stops bleeding
172
fibroblasts do what
produce and replace connective tissue
173
mediators (cytokines) of inflammatory processes is
measuring parts of the blood
174
angiogenic is
more blood vessels
175
nonpharmacological treatment
rest, ice, compression, elevation
176
pharmacological treatment
aspirin, NSAIDS, steroids
177
how does White Blood cell count change with inflammation
increased
178
how does C-reactive protein (CRP) change with inflammation
increased
179
how does Prothrombin (time to coagulate) change with inflammation
reduced
180
how does fibrinogen change with inflammation
increased
181
how does white blood cell differential change with inflammation
neutrophils increase in acute inflammation
182
how does erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) change with inflammation
increased, often above 100 mm/hr
183
erythrocyte sedimentation rate is
how fast blood samples (erythrocytes) sediments along a test tube in one hour
184
conditions associated with high ESR
cancer, autoimmune diseases, infections
185
CRP is synthesized in the
liver
186
CRP enhances
phagocytosis by macrophages
187
what is the correct sequence?
1. white blood cells migrate
2. phagocytosis of irritant
3. irritant enters the tissue
4. redness, heat and edema
5. inflammatory mediators
6. blood vessels dilate
7. cellular damage
3, 7, 5, 6, 4, 1, 3
188
tissue repair is
overlaps the inflammatory process; response to tissue injury - to maintain normal structure and function
189
2 types of tissue repair
regeneration and replacement
190
regeneration is
injured cells replaced with cells of same type leaving no evidence of previous injury
191
replacement is
with connective tissue - scar
192
phases of wound healing
- inflammation (5-10 days)
- proliferation and migration (3-20 days)
- remodeling and maturation (past 21 days)
193
fibronectin
provides structural support to the healing tissue
stabilizes fibrin which helps with blood clot
attracts fibroblasts and macrophages to the healing tissue
194
proteoglycans
secreted by fibroblasts, helps aid in hydration and stabilizing tissue during repair
195
elastin
secreted by fibroblasts, provides elasticity to tissue
196
collagen
- structural support and tensile strength for all tissues and organs
- each collagen type has a specialized function
- skin - mostly type 1 collagen
- hyaline cartilage - type 2 collagen
- vascular and visceral structure - type 3 collagen
197
factors that affect tissue healing
- growth factors
- general health of an individual
- presence of comorbidities
- infection
- off loading weight bearing surfaces may be necessary
- lack of desire to exercise or follow plan of care
- nutrition
- oxygen
198
inflammatory phase
begins at the time of injury
- vascular and cellular phase
- migration of phagocytic white blood cells into the injured area
199
proliferative stage
- building of new tissue to fill the wound space
- fibroblasts
- angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels)
- granulation tissue: rich network of developing blood vessels with connective tissue matrix reddish granular layer of tissue
- re-epithelialization, epithelial cells at wound edges proliferate to form new surface layer "bridging the gap"
200
remodeling phase
begins 3 weeks after injury, can continue for 6 months or longer
- development of fibrous scar
- scar tissue changes from red to pink to white
201
types of wound closures
primary intention (wound healing quick)
secondary intention (pressure ulcers, longer repair time)
202
complications of healing include
infection, ulceration, adhesions, dehiscence, keloid development
203
using corticosteroids is bad for people with
wounds
204
using corticosteroids is good for people with
autoimmune diseases, RA, etc
205
hypertrophic scar/keloid is
excessive production of scar tissue
206
black wound means
dead
presence of necrosis/ delayed healing
207
yellow wound means
infected
wound exudate + adherent = bacterial growth
need to debride
208
red wound means
healing
granulation tissue
stage 2
- blood vessels
209
pink wound means
covered wound
end of stage 2
210
red/yellow wound means
need to remove yellow
promote growth of red granulation tissue
211
chronic inflammation
represents a persistent/recurrent state of inflammation lasting several weeks or longer
212
cells of chronic inflammation
monocytes, macrophages
fibroblasts
213
in some cases, chronic inflammation results in
granuloma
