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DPT 513 > Intro to Inferential Stats > Flashcards

Intro to Inferential Stats Flashcards

1
Q

what is statistics?

A

a collection, organization, summarization, and analysis of data

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2
Q

t/f: statistics involved drawing an inference about data when only part of the data is observed

A

true

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3
Q

what is a population?

A

the largest collection of entities for which we have an interest at a particular time

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4
Q

what is a sample?

A

a subset that is representative of a population

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5
Q

if a sample is not representative of the population, can we draw inferences from the data?

A

no

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6
Q

what is random sampling?

A

sampling technique in which each member of the population has an equal opportunity of being selected into the sample

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7
Q

what is a stratified random sample?

A

sampling technique where the population is broken into subcategories and the sample is taken from each stratum

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8
Q

what are some examples of stratums for a stratified random sample?

A

age, sex, socioeconomic status, level of injury

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9
Q

what factors can make a sample unrepresentative of the population?

A

bias and sampling error

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10
Q

what is an example of volunteer./participation bias that often occurs?

A

females tend to volunteer more often then men

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11
Q

what are 2 examples of sampling error?

A

1) sample of convenience
2) sampling from a single area

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12
Q

what is a parameter?

A

characteristic of population

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13
Q

is a parameter or statistic usually denoted by Greek letters?

A

parameter

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14
Q

is a parameter usually known?

A

no, it is usually inferred based on the statistic

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15
Q

what is a statistic?

A

characteristic of a sample

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16
Q

an estimate of the ___ is based on a ____

A

parameter, sample

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17
Q

t/f: we infer the parameter based on the statistic

A

true

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18
Q

what is a variable?

A

characteristics, #, or quantity that can be measured/counted

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19
Q

what are common examples of variables?

A

gender, age, # of patients, etc

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20
Q

what is a quantitative variable?

A

variable measured as a #

conveys info regarding the amount

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21
Q

what are examples of quantitative variables?

A

height, weight, length, age, temp, etc

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22
Q

what is a qualitative variable?

A

things that possess some characteristic of interest

data that can be categorized/described in words, not #s

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23
Q

what are some examples of qualitative variables?

A

medical dx, ethnic group, hometown, etc

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24
Q

t/f: if a qualitative variable is coded as a number it becomes quantitative data

A

false, it is still qualitative

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25
Q

what are the quantitative variable types?

A

continuous and discrete variables

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26
Q

what is a continuous variable?

A

ordered numerical data that can assume any value (within a range)

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27
Q

what are examples of continuous variables?

A

height, weight, age, force, systolic BP, cholesterol level

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28
Q

what is a discrete variable?

A

data in whole #s

ordered numerical data restricted to integer values (count data)

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29
Q

are dichotomous variables continuous or discrete?

A

discrete

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30
Q

what is a dichotomous variable?

A

dx of the flue, stroke, etc as +/-

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31
Q

what are examples of discrete variables?

A

of children, # of eggs per chicken, # of deaths, dx (+/-), dead or alive

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32
Q

what are the measurement levels? (No Oil In Rivers)

A

nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio variables

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33
Q

what is a nominal variable?

A

categories without a natural order

mutually exclusive

usually qualitative

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34
Q

what are examples of nominal variables?

A

gender, nationality, favorite animal

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35
Q

what are the 2 categorical variables?

A

nominal and ordinal variables

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36
Q

what is an ordinal variable?

A

categories w/a natural ordering (ranking)

quantitative order

exact dif bw measures is unknown

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37
Q

what are examples of ordinal variables?

A

socioeconomic status, position in a race, pain scale, RPE

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38
Q

what is an interval variable?

A

possible to order

intervals are known

no absolute zero (0 doesn’t mean nonexistent)

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39
Q

what are examples of interval variables?

A

temp and joint angles

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40
Q

what is a ratio variable?

A

zero represents the absence of a value

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41
Q

what are examples of ratio variables?

A

length and force

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42
Q

what are the 2 metric variables?

A

interval and ratio variables

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43
Q

what is observational research?

A

tracking people prospectively or retrospectively

not manipulating variables

correlations can be drawn

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44
Q

t/f: observational research yields strong cause-effect inferences

A

false

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45
Q

what is experimental research?

A

actively making adjustments to variables

requires planning on controls and experimental manipulations

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46
Q

does observational or experimental research yield greater cause-effect inferences?

A

experimental research

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47
Q

what is an independent variable?

A

the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher (placebo, exercise, etc)

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48
Q

what is a dependent variable?

A

the variable that is measured

what you see based on manipulation of the IV

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49
Q

what is the purpose of descriptive statistics?

A

to numerically or graphically describe a set of data

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50
Q

what does N mean?

A

the population size

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51
Q

what does n mean?

A

the sample size

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52
Q

what are the measures of central tendency?

A

mean, median, mode

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53
Q

what are measures of central tendency showing?

A

where the data tends to cluster

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54
Q

what are measures of variability showing?

A

how data tends to spread out

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55
Q

what is the mean?

A

sum of all observations divided by the # of observations

the average

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56
Q

which measure is affected by every score in a distribution, including outliers?

A

the mean

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57
Q

what is the population mean represented by?

A

µ

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58
Q

what is the sample mean represented by?

A

x bar

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59
Q

is the population mean measured or inferred?

A

inferred

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60
Q

is the sample mean measured or inferred?

A

measured

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61
Q

what is the median?

A

the middle most observation or ordered data

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62
Q

what measure of central tendency is unaffected by extreme values?

A

the median

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63
Q

how is the median value obtained?

A

order the day from largest to smallest or smallest to largest and then find the middle value

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64
Q

what is the mode?

A

the most frequently occurring data (IR the most used brand of hot packs)

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65
Q

t/f: the mode is not usually used bc it doesn’t always exist and doesn’t tell us a lot for info

A

true

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66
Q

what is percentile?

A

the point at which a certain % of the data lie below it

ex: GRE in 90th percentile means that 90% of test takers scored below you

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67
Q

does the 50th percentile represent the mean, median, or mode?

A

median

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68
Q

what is the 1st quartile?

A

25th percentile

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69
Q

what is the 2nd quartile?

A

50th percentile (median)

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70
Q

what is the 3rd quartile?

A

75th percentile

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71
Q

what is the 4th quartile?

A

100th percentile

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72
Q

what is the interquartile range (IQR)?

A

the range of the 1st to 3rd quartile

difference be the 75th and 25th percentile

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73
Q

when should the mean be used?

A

when all available info is to be considered

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74
Q

when should the median be used?

A

when the middle score is needed, the most typical score is needed, or the data has extreme scores

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75
Q

what are the measures of variability?

A

range, IQR, variance, and standard deviation (SD)

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76
Q

what is the range?

A

can be given as a raw range or calculated by subtracting the smallest data point from the largest

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77
Q

what is SD?

A

the square root of variance

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78
Q

what is the easiest measure of variability to interpret?

A

SD

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79
Q

what is the coefficient of variation (CV)?

A

normalizing SD by mean

a unit less number

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80
Q

how is the CV calculated?

A

the sample SD divided by the sample mean (sometimes multiplied by 100)

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81
Q

how is the population variance represented?

A

sigma squared

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82
Q

how is sample variance measured?

A

S squared

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83
Q

how is the population variance calculated?

A

subtract the mean from every data point and add them up

then divide with the population size

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84
Q

how is the sample variance calculated?

A

subtract the mean from every data point and add them up

then divide by the sample size minus 1

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85
Q

t/f: the sample variance has no direction

A

true

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86
Q

if there is a greater variance is there a greater or lesser dispersion of data from the mean?

A

greater

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87
Q

how is the population SD represented?

A

sigma

88
Q

how is the sample SD represented?

A

S

89
Q

how is the population SD calculated?

A

take the square root of the population variance

90
Q

how is the sample SD calculated?

A

take the square root of the sample variance

91
Q

why is SD used more than variance?

A

bc it allows you to have the same units as the central tendencies

92
Q

what is the advantage of CV?

A

it cancels out the units so that you can compare data regardless of units

93
Q

reliability is ___ and ____

A

reproducibility and consistency

94
Q

t/f: reproducibility and consistency is generally determined by correlations

A

true

95
Q

what is intra-rater reliability?

A

anaylsis of a single rater’s consistency

direction, scoring, timing

96
Q

what is inter-rater reliability?

A

test performed by 2 or more individuals on the same event

97
Q

what is test-retest reliability?

A

repeating a test multiple times to determine consistency

same day, daily, 1 weeks apart

98
Q

what is the range for reliability?

A

0-1

99
Q

what does a reliability score close to zero mean?

A

bad reliability

100
Q

what does a reliability score close to 1 mean?

A

good reliability

101
Q

what is validity?

A

the soundness/appropriateness of the test in measuring what it is designed/intended to measure

102
Q

what are the types of validity?

A

content, construct, concurrent, face, internal, and external validity

103
Q

what is internal validity?

A

measure of the control w/in the experiment to ascertain that the results are due to the experimental manipulations

104
Q

what is instrument error?

A

poor callibration of the treatment unit

105
Q

what is investigator error?

A

error int technique, instructions, or investigator bias

106
Q

what are common techniques to ensure internal validity?

A

blinding, placebo, and randomization of samples

107
Q

what is external validity?

A

ability to generalize the results to the population from which samples were drawn

how well does the sample reflect the population of interest?

108
Q

t/f: tight experimental control may make the study unrealistic (ie too many days a week of PT in the study)

A

true

109
Q

what is sensitivity?

A

TP/(TP+FN)

snOUT

110
Q

what is specificity?

A

FP/(TN+FP)

spIN

111
Q

if a condition is present and the test is positive this is…

A

TP

112
Q

if a condition is present and the test is negative this is…

A

FN

113
Q

if a condition is absent and the test is positive this is…

A

FP

114
Q

if a condition is absent and the test is negative this is…

A

TN

115
Q

what is positive predictive value?

A

TP/(TP+FP)

proportion of true patients with positive results

116
Q

what is the negative predictive value?

A

TN/(TN+FN)

117
Q

what does a scatterplot allow for?

A

visualization of raw data

118
Q

in a scatter plot, the IV is usually on the __ axis, and the DV is usually on the __ axis

A

X, Y

119
Q

what are histograms?

A

bar graphs that visualize the pattern of the frequency distribution of the data

can measure mode very easily (the tallest bar)

120
Q

normal distribution is characterized by what 2 pieces of info?

A

mean and SD

121
Q

what is the empirical rule of normal distribution?

A

the frequency of data declines in a predictable manner as data deviates farther from the center of the bell curve

122
Q

t/f: in the normal distribution, the mean=median=mode

A

true

123
Q

where does 68% of the data lie in a normal distribution?

A

µ +/- 1 SD

124
Q

where does 95.4% of the data lie in a normal distribution?

A

µ +/- 2 SD

125
Q

where does 99.7% of the data lie in a normal distribution?

A

µ +/- 3 SD

126
Q

what is the mean and SD of a standard normal curve?

A

mean=0
SD=1

127
Q

when the SD of a normal curve changes what happens?

A

vertical curve change

smaller SD=shorter
larger SD=taller

127
Q

when a normal curve has a mean of 0 an SD of 2, what happens to the curve?

A

it gets shorter and wider

128
Q

when a normal curve has a mean of 3 and SD of 2, what happens to the curve?

A

it gets shorter and wider and shifts to he right

129
Q

when the mean of a normal curve changes, what happens?

A

horizontal curve change

(+)=R shift
(-)=L shift

130
Q

what is the z score?

A

raw score expressed in SD units

ex: if the mean is 80 and the SD is 11, 91 has a z score of +1, 69 has a z score of -1

131
Q

mean=80
SD=11

how many data points (in %) fall bw 69-91?

A

68% (mu+/- 1 SD)

132
Q

in the standard normal distribution, a z score of 0=__

A

mean

133
Q

in the standard normal distribution, a z score of 1=__

A

1 SD

134
Q

is 1.3 or -0.50 closer to the mean of a standard normal distribution?

A

-0.50

135
Q

what does the z score tell us?

A

how far we are from the mean

136
Q

what is a bimodal distribution?

A

a distribution with 2 equal modes (curve has 2 peaks of the same height)

137
Q

what is skewness?

A

a disproportionate # of data points towards one end of the scale

138
Q

what is (+) skew?

A

a curve with a longer R tail and more low value points

139
Q

what is a (-) skew?

A

a curve with a longer L tail and more high value points

140
Q

what is kurtosis?

A

relative peakedness of the curve

141
Q

what is platykurtosis?

A

(-) kurtosis

lower peak

142
Q

what is leptokurtosis?

A

(+) kurtosis

higher peak

143
Q

with (+) skew, what is the relationship bw mean, median, and mode?

A

mode is the peak

mean follows the tail to the right and is the largest of the 3 #s

median is bw the two

144
Q

with a normal curve, what is the relationship bw mean, median, and mode?

A

they are all the peak of the curve

mean=median=mode

145
Q

with (-) skew, what is the relationship bw mean, median, and mode?

A

mode is the peak

mean follows the tail to the left and is the smallest of the 3 #s

median is bw the two

146
Q

what does skewness of 0 and kurtosis of 0 indicate?

A

normal distribution

147
Q

if skewness is >0, what does this mean?

A

more data points are towards the R tail ?? (shouldn’t it be left has more)

(+) skew

148
Q

if skewness is <0, what does this mean?

A

more data points are towards the L tail ??? (shouldn’t it be right has more)

(-) skew

149
Q

if kurtosis is >0, what does this mean?

A

the curve is more peaked

(+) kurtosis

leptokurtosis

150
Q

if kurtosis is <0, what does this mean?

A

the curve is flatter

(-) kurtosis

platykurtosis

151
Q

what is a hypothesis?

A

an educated guess/logical assumption that is based on prior research or known facts and that can be tested

152
Q

if a hypothesis is supported over time, it can become a ___

A

theory

153
Q

what is a theory?

A

belief regarding a concept/series of related concepts

154
Q

what are examples of theories?

A

gravity, evolution, sliding filament theory of muscle contraction

155
Q

what are the hypothesis testing procedures?

A

set up a hypothesis

choose which statistical test to use

find test statistic

find p value

draw a conclusion (based on hypothesis and research question)

156
Q

what is the null hypothesis (H0)?

A

hypothesis that predicts no difference/no relationship bw the groups

157
Q

what is the alternate hypothesis (Ha)?

A

hypothesis the predicts differences/relationships bw groups

158
Q

is the H0 or Ha that research hypothesis?

A

Ha

159
Q

t/f: H0 and Ha must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive

A

true

160
Q

if you reject the null, you are ___ the alternate

A

accepting

161
Q

if you fail to reject the null, you are __ the alternate

A

rejecting

162
Q

if H0 is true, Ha is ___

A

false

163
Q

if H0 is false, Ha is___

A

true

164
Q

a ___ hypothesis MUST contain equality

A

null

165
Q

if H0: mu=mu0, Ha:…

A

mu is not equal to mu0

166
Q

if H0: mu is less than or equal to mu0, Ha:…

A

mu>mu0

167
Q

if H0: mu is greater than or equal to mu0, Ha:…

A

mu<mu0

168
Q

what is a 2-sided hypothesis (2 tailed)?

A

H0: mu=mu0

Ha: mu is not equal to mu0

169
Q

what is a 1 sided hypothesis (1 tailed)?

A

H0: mu is less than or equal to mu0; Ha: mu>mu0

H0: mu is greater than or equal o mu0; Ha: mu<mu0

170
Q

what is a 2 tailed test?

A

Ha: mu1 is not equal to mu2

1/2 rejection are is divided bw the 2 tails of the sampling distribution

171
Q

what is a 1 tailed test?

A

Ha: mu1>mu2; mu1<mu2

all rejection area in one tail of the sampling distribution

172
Q

what is test statistics?

A

how much data supports the alternate hypothesis (research hypothesis)

173
Q

the bigger the test statistic (+ or -) the ___ the support for Ha

A

stronger

174
Q

if a test statistic is closer to 0, you likely ___ Ha

A

reject

175
Q

what is probability?

A

long-run proportion of a particular outcome

176
Q

if p=0, the outcome is…

A

impossible

177
Q

if p=1, the outcome is…

A

ensured

178
Q

mean=80
1 SD=11

what is the probability of getting a data point bw 80-91 if we pulled one data point out at random?

A

34% (1/2 of 68% bc it’s + 1 SD)

179
Q

what is level of confidence (LOC)?

A

% figure that establishes the probability that a statement is correct

180
Q

what is the probability of error?

A

alpha

the remaining % of the LOC

181
Q

what is the probability of error when the LOC is 68%?

A

32%

182
Q

what is the probability of error when the LOC is 95%?

A

5%

183
Q

what is alpha?

A

significance level

area under the normal curve that represents the probability of error

usually set at 0.05 (5%)

184
Q

if p=0.01, what is the probability that H0 is true?

A

1 in 100

185
Q

if p=.10, what is the probability that H0 is true?

A

10 in 100

1 in 10

10%

186
Q

if p=.05, what is the probability that H0 is true?

A

5 in 100

1 in 20

5%

187
Q

if p=.001, what is the probability that H0 is true?

A

1 in 1000

0.1%

188
Q

the lower the probability, the decision is ___

A

stronger

189
Q

if p<alpha, is this good?

A

yes!

190
Q

if you fail to reject H0, and H0 is actually true, this is ___

A

TN

191
Q

if you fail to reject H0, and H0 is actually false, this is ___

A

FN

type 2 error (beta)

192
Q

what is a type 2 error?

A

FN

saying that there’s no change (fail to reject H0) when there is actually change (H0 is false)

beta

193
Q

what is type 1 error?

A

FP

saying that there’s change (reject H0) when the is actually no change (H0 is true)

alpha

194
Q

if you reject H0 and H0 is actually true, this is___

A

FP

type 1 error (alpha)

195
Q

if you reject H0 and H0 is actually false, this is___

A

TP

196
Q

if you accept H0 (fail to reject H0, reject Ha), is this positive or negative?

A

negative

197
Q

if you reject H0 (accept Ha), is this positive or negative?

A

positive

198
Q

alpha and beta have an ___ relationship

A

inverse

199
Q

is beta a type 1 or 2 error?

A

type 2 error

200
Q

is alpha a type 1 or 2 error?

A

type 1 error

201
Q

t/f: you can’t reduce both alpha and beta at the same time

A

true

202
Q

if alpha is increased, beta is ___

A

decreased

203
Q

if alpha is decreased, beta is ___

A

increased

204
Q

can you reduce type 1 and 2 errors at the same time?

A

no

205
Q

what is the p value?

A

determined by the test statistic

associated with type 1 error (alpha)

206
Q

making a decision on rejecting/failing to reject the null hypothesis depends on what?

A

the comparison of p to the level of significance (alpha)

207
Q

if p is less than or equal to alpha, do we reject H0 and accept Ha?

A

yes!

208
Q

if p is less than or equal to alpha, is this significant?

A

yes!

209
Q

if p>alpha, do we fail to reject H0 (accept H0 and reject Ha)?

A

yes!

210
Q

if p>alpha, is this significant?

A

no

211
Q

how can you write a p value?

A

p=#

or

P </> #

212
Q

t/f: it is required to report the p value in the conclusion

A

true

213
Q

what is included in the conclusion?

A

summary of the question, parameter tested, and results

don’t just state “reject” or “failed to reject” H0

214
Q

what is a confidence interval?

A

range of values associated w/a level of confidence

estimate of a range that describes whether the population (true) parameter is likely to be w/in a certain level of confidence

usually 95%

DPT 513 (9 decks)

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