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BIOEPI > INTRO TO EPIDEMIOLOGY > Flashcards

INTRO TO EPIDEMIOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

upon or leading the people
Study the occurrences and distribution of diseases
Distribution of determinants of health state or events in specified population and the application of this study to controls the health problems.

A

Epidemiology

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2
Q

Field of science given the relationship of various factors which determine the frequencies and distribution of an infectious process
Studies the patterns of disease occurrence in human populations and the factors that influence this pattern. The term obviously is related to epidemic

A

Epidemiology

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3
Q

Application of this study to the prevention or control of the disease or health problems

A

Epidemiology
Derived from the Greek words “epi” “demos” and “logos”

Epi: upon
Demos: people
Logos: study

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4
Q

Frequency vs Pattern:
Number of health events
Relative to population size

A

Frequency

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5
Q

Frequency vs Pattern:
Person (who)
Place (where)
Time (when)

A

Pattern

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6
Q 
patterns of disease.
pertains to the distribution of
health-related states. This is under the
descriptive statistics. We will study the
frequency.
A

Epidemiology: Distribution
Ex: There are more deaths in males than on
females in an older age group.

The incidence of COVID-19 infection is
increasing in 15-24 age group in the
Philippines.

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7
Q 
Cause of factors that bring about a
change in health.
Why? How?
Biologic
Chemical
Other factors
A 
Epidemiology: Determinants
The focus is the risk factors.
This falls under analytic.
Example:
People with family history of heart
disease are more likely to developed
heart disease than those without.
Extreme sun exposure is a risk factor for
skin cancer.
Epidemiology
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8
Q

Dealing with population groups rather

than individuals as patients.

A

Epidemiology: Population

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9
Q

Clinical vs Epidemiological:
Signs and symptoms
Treatment

A

Clinical

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10
Q

Clinical vs Epidemiological:
Number of people affected
• Age groups affected
• Potential for spread

A

Epidemiological

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11
Q

Odd Man Out:

FUNCTIONS/SCOPE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY 
Describe health status
Explain causal factors
Predict occurrence of disease
Approximate population distribution
Control the spread of disease
A

Approximate population distribution

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12
Q

study of what the factors are, whether

risk factors or preventive factors.

A

Etiology

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13
Q 
A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. To construct or complete the natural
history of a disease so that adequate
measures for diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention will be made.
2. To study immediate and special
problem in the field of health.
A

C

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14
Q 
A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. To evaluate the effectiveness of
therapy, preventive measures and
program.
2. To give approximate about a parameter in a given population
A

A

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15
Q 
EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
Frequency (including
rates & risks) & pattern of health events
(person, place, time).
A

Distribution

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16
Q 
EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
factors or events that
are capable of bringing about a change
in health.
A

Determinants

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17
Q 
EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
Epidemiology
examines health events among
population groups rather than
individuals.
A

Human Population

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18
Q 
EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
infections,
chronic diseases & physiological
events & various states of health such
as disability, injury, mortality.
A

Health related states

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19
Q

EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
immunization, hospital attendance, bed occupancy.

A

Health related events

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20
Q

EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
basis for directing interventions.

A

Application

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21
Q

EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
an increase in the frequency (incidence) of a disease above the usual and expected rate, which is called endemic rate, thus epidemiology count cases of a disease, and when they detect the sign of epidemic, they ask who, when and where questions.

A

Epidemic

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22
Q 
EPIDEMIOLOGY: DEFINITION OF KEY
TERMS:
surveillance made
by the government before many
people start dying
A

Notifiable disease

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23
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. Study the history of the health population and the rise and fall of diseases and changes in their
character.
2. Diagnose the health of individual patient only.

A

A

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24
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. Study the work of health services without even a view of improving them.
2. Estimate the risk of diseases, accidents, detects and the changes avoiding them

A

B

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25
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. Complete the clinical feature of acute disease and not describe their natural history.
2. Not focused in the search for cause of health and
disease.

A

D

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26
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
Early explanations for disease: Ancient Greeks

  1. Wrath of Gods
  2. Evil Sprits
A

C

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27
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
Early explanations for disease: Ancient Greeks
1. Religious Beliefs
2. Weather

A

C

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28
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
Early explanations for disease: Ancient Greeks
1. “Bad Air” Theory (Miasmic theory)
2. The Great Cataclysm

A

A

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29
Q

Theory that says that Miasma (Bad Air) causes the disease, particularly fever. Thus, they build huge fires to purify the air.

A

“Bad Air” Theory (Miasmic theory)

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30
Q

He is considered as the

“Father of Medicine”, theorized the “Filth Theory”

A

Hippocrates (400 BC)

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31
Q 
this theory associates the disease with physical
environment. Changes in seasons,
climate, temperature and overcrowding
causes diseases. Diseases were due to
poisonous substances and gases from
the Earth.
A 
“Filth Theory”
Physical Environment as Factors
influencing Disease.
1. Changing seasons
2. Hot and Cold Winds
3. Qualities of Water
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32
Q

Has written books and bills (Bills of Mortality in 1669). This bill contains his natural and political observations. He is the first one to perform descriptive statistics like the tabulated births and deaths, occurrences of census and patterns in mortality (organizing mortality data in a mortality table) which is referred as the Columbus of
statistics

A

John Graunt (1669)
During his time, they know that murder is
the number one cause of death. Later on,
he found out that it was infant mortality

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33
Q

created a warning system on

the Bubonic Plague (Yersinia pestis).

A 
John Graunt (1669)
Quantitative methods in describing
vital population statistics.
1. Seasonal Variations
2. Infant Mortality
3. Excess male over female differences
in mortality.
4. First to discover regularities in
mortality
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34
Q

Considered as the
“Father of Handwashing”.
Pioneer of antiseptic procedures
He found out that medical students did not disinfect and follow antiseptic procedure every after patient

A 
Ignaz Semmelweis (1840)
Investigated why mortality rate from childbed fever was higher in the clinic for medical students than that for midwives
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35
Q 
He is considered as the
“Father of Modern Epidemiology”.
Utilized methods that reflects modern field of epidemiology.
Investigated the source of Cholera
outbreak
A 
John Snow (1849-1854)
He performed the shoe leather
epidemiology. He has direct door to door
inquiry of the affected populations. He
noted that districts with high cholera rates
were serviced by two companies, which is
the Lambeth and the Southwark and
Vauxhall company
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36
Q

refuted the Miasmic theory (Bad
Air) for Cholera. Before, they know that
cholera was due to bad air

A 
John Snow (1849-1854)
Natural Experiment - naturally occurring
circumstances in which groups of people
have different levels of exposure to a
factor causal in a way that is similar to an
actual experiment
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37
Q 
“Germ / Bacteriological Theory”
Diseases caused by specific living
organisms:
Due to microscopic forms of life.
Opened the concepts of isolation and
quarantine.
A

Robert Koch (1884)
Postulates:
-Microorganisms must be observed in all cases.
-It must be isolated and grown in pure cultures.
-The pure cultures when inoculated in a susceptible animal, must reproduce the disease.
-The microorganisms must be observed in and recovered from the experimented diseased animals.

38
Q

What year or era?

Explosion of investigation of disease occurrences.
Development of epidemiologic methods for non- communicable diseases.

A

1990s

39
Q

It is a longitudinal study that started in 1949. They recruited diseased-free men and women. The initial medical history and physical examinations were taken and it was held for every 2 years

A

Framingham Study

The risk factors for CHD (congenital heart defect) and CVD (cardiovascular diseases).

40
Q 
This is for the smoking
to lung cancer. This was during 1951-
2000. They enrolled thousands of
male doctors and provided strong
evidence linking smoking to lung
cancer
A

British Doctors Study (Doll and Peto Study)

41
Q

theory about disease results from the interaction of multiple ecological factors within a dynamic system. It is made up of the agent of the disease, host and the environment

A

Theories on Multiple Causation

42
Q 
MODELS OF DISEASE CAUSATION:
States that effects never depend on
single isolated causes but rather
develop as the result of chains of
causation → result of complex
genealogy and antecedents.
A

THE WEB

43
Q

MODELS OF DISEASE CAUSATION:
The host and agent are at the opposite ends of a hypothetical lever while the environment serves as fulcrum.
Based on biologic laws:
Disease results from an imbalance between disease agent and man

A

EPIDEMIOLOGIC LEVER
The nature and extent of the imbalance depends on the nature and characteristics of the host and the agent. The characteristic of the two are influenced considerably by the conditions of their environment.

44
Q

A if only the 1st statement is correct
B if only the 2nd statement is correct
C if both of the statements are correct
D if neither of the statements is correct
TWO MAIN AREAS OF INVESTIGATION
1. Describes the distribution of health status in terms of age, gender, race, geography, and time
2. Patterns of disease distribution in terms of causal factor

A

C
In epidemiology of any disease or event, one studies the factor which contribute to its causation and behavior- AGENT, HOST, ENVIRONMENT
Epidemiology concept maintains that there can be no single cause of disease.

45
Q 
is any element, substance or
force whether living or non- living
thing; the presence or absence can
initiate or perpetuate a disease
process.
A

Agent

46
Q

Types of Agents: Living
BVFPH (Biological organisms capable of causing
diseases)

A 
Bacteria: Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
Shigellosis
• Viruses: AIDS, Hepatitis
• Fungi: Candidiasis, Athletes Foots, Mycosis
• Protozoans: Amoebiasis, Jorjasis
• Helminths: Schistosomiasis, Ascariasis
47
Q

Types of Agents: Non-living

PCN

A

• Physical and Mechanical: Extremes of temperature, light, electricity, physical trauma.
• Chemicals: could be exogenous (poisons) or endogenous (accumulation of toxic products of metabolism).
• Nutrients: Deficiency agents (Anemia
from iron deficiency) and Excess agents
(Obesity from over eating)

48
Q 
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE:
The physical features, the biological
requirement, chemical composition,
and the resistance
A

Inherent characteristics

49
Q 
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE:
It refers to the reservoir and the source
of infection and the modes of
transmission
A

Characteristic in relation to the

environment

50
Q 
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE:
ability to gain access and
adapt to the human host to the extent
of finding lodgment and multiplication
A

Characteristic directly related to man

(Infectivity)

51
Q 
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE:
measures the ability of
the agent, when lodged in the body set
up a specific reaction.
A

Characteristic directly related to man

Pathogenicity

52
Q 
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE:
refers to severity of the
reaction produce and is usually
measured in terms of fatality
A

Characteristic directly related to man

Virulence

53
Q

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGENT OF
DISEASE
ability to stimulate the
host to produce antibody.

A

Antigenicity

54
Q

Mechanisms by which an infectious
agent is transported from reservoir to
susceptible human host

A

MODES OF TRANSMISSION

55
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:

immediate transfer of infectious agent on a receptive portal of entry.

A

Direct transmission

56
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:
any substance that serves as an intermediate means to transport and introducing infectious agent into susceptible host through a suitable portal of entry. i.e. Fomites (inanimate objects or materials) such as handkerchiefs, toys, soiled clothes, cooking or eating utensils, and surgical instruments or dressing can act as a vehicle.

A

Indirect transmission

Vehicle borne

57
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:
Transmission may occur by injecting salivary gland fluid during biting or by depositing feces or other materials on the skin through the bite wound or a traumatized skin area

A

Indirect transmission

Vector-borne

58
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:
transmission is facilitated by a mechanical vector, an animal that carries a pathogen from one host to another without being infected itself. For example, a fly may land on fecal matter and later transmit bacteria from the feces to food that it lands on; a human eating the food may then become infected by the bacteria, resulting in a case of diarrhea or dysentery

A 
Indirect transmission 
(Mechanical vector)
59
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:
occurs when the pathogen reproduces within a biological vector that transmits the pathogen from one host to another. Arthropods are the main
vectors responsible for biological transmission. Most arthropod vectors transmit the pathogen by biting the host, creating a wound that serves as a portal of entry

A

Indirect transmission

Biological vector

60
Q

MODES OF TRANSMISSION:

dissemination of microbial aerosols to a suitable portal of entry usually the respiratory tract

A 
Airborne
a. Droplet- usually small residues
which result from evaporation of
fluid from droplets emitted by an
infected host.
b. Dust
61
Q

It goes through chain of events leading from inapparent infection to a clinical case of a disease. We will check the gradient of the infection, the range from inapparent to severe disease

A

The HOST Factor of Disease

  1. Age
  2. Sex
  3. Race
  4. Habits, Customs and Religions
  5. Exposure to agent
  6. Defense mechanism of the host
62
Q

The HOST Factor of Disease:
- immune system; deals with antigens from pathogens
that are freely circulating or outside the infected sites

A

Humoral defense

63
Q

The HOST Factor of Disease:
occurs inside the infected cells and is mediated by T lymphocytes. Antigens are expressed on the cells surface or on an antigen presenting cell
(APC).

A

Cellular defense

64
Q

This is the total property of an individual
to protect himself from an infectious
agent

A

IMMUNITY

65
Q

Two types of immunity:
______- present at the time of birth or has developed
during maturation.
______- acquired as a result of prior exposure with a
foreign substance.

A

Non-specific resistance

Specific resistance

66
Q 
First line of defense:
Skin
mucosal surface
Tears
Saliva
acid pH of gastric juice
phagocytes & macrophages
Age, nutrition status, genetic
factors
A

NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSE

MECHANISMS

67
Q

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE:
what has been introduced to the individual is the antigen (weakened type). Naturally acquired active immunity infective agent will gain entry to the body, it acts as a stimulant for the antibody formation as the organism acts as the antigen.
Artificially acquired active immunity when the antigen has been deliberately
introduced like injecting vaccines.

A

Active Immunity
Live vaccine: a vaccine in which a live virus is weakened or attenuated through chemical and physical properties. It is done for the vaccine to produce an immune response without causing the severe effects of the disease

68
Q

SPECIFIC RESISTANCE:
when what has been introduced
is already your antibody

A

a. Naturally acquired passive immunity-exhibited by the transfer of antibodies from mother’s placenta to the fetus and transfer of antibodies from breast milk to the baby.
e. g. First drop of milk: Colostrum
b. Artificially acquired passive immunity- injection of artificially prepared substance like immune serum of your gamma globulin.

69
Q

Immunity of a group or a community.
“Resistance” of a group to invasion and spread of an infectious agent based on the immunity of a high proportion of individuals member of the group. Important factor underlying the dynamics of propagated epidemics

A

HERD IMMUNITY

70
Q

COMMUNITY REACTIONS TO AGENT:
Intermittent presence of a disease.
Occurrence of a few cases every now and then often without relationship to each other

A

SPORADIC

71
Q

COMMUNITY REACTIONS TO AGENT:
Constant presence of a disease within a geographical area. (Malaria endemic in Palawan, Schistosomiasis which is endemic in region 8)

A

ENDEMIC

72
Q

COMMUNITY REACTIONS TO AGENT:
Occurrence in a community of cases of
an illness clearly in excess of normal
expectancy

A

EPIDEMIC (OUTBREAK)

73
Q 
COMMUNITY REACTIONS TO AGENT:
An outbreak of exceptional proportion
spreading quickly from one area to
another.
Epidemic of worldwide proportion
A

PANDEMIC

74
Q

It enhances or it diminishes survival of the agents. The environment can serve to bring the agent and the host into contact. Also, the environment is a reservoir that
foster the infectious disease agent.

A

The ENVIRONMENTAL Factors of
Disease
Physical Environment
Climate (certain disease have seasonal distribution, e.g., dengue during rainy season)
Geography and location
Biologic Environment (Living environment of a man consisting of plants, animals and fellow human beings)
Socio-economic environment

75
Q

Living organism or inanimate matter in which an infectious agent normally lives and multiplies on which
the agent depends primarily for survival and reproduces itself in such manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible host

A 
RESERVOIR
Reservoir of infection
- Physical environment
- Animals or insects
- Human beings (main reservoirs)
76
Q

______- each slice of the pie is a factor contributing to the development of the disease. It could be any host agent or environmental factors.
______- a component cause that is present in every sufficient cause. This is required. Factor must be present for the disease to occur. It must invariably precede an effect.
______- set of conditions that inevitably results to the outcome. It includes component causes. That is the completion pie. This completion will result to disease development.

A

Component cause
Necessary cause
Sufficient cause

77
Q

TYPES OF CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS:

Without the factor, disease never develops. With the factor, disease always develops. This situation rarely occurs.

A

Necessary and sufficient

78
Q

TYPES OF CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS:
The factor in and of itself is not enough to cause disease. Multiple factors are required, usually in a specific temporal sequence, such as the carcinogenesis

A

Necessary but not sufficient

79
Q

TYPES OF CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS:
The factor alone can cause disease but so
can other factors in its absence. An example of this is the benzene or radiation, it can cause leukemia
without the presence of the other

A

Sufficient but not necessary

80
Q

TYPES OF CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS:
The factor cannot cause disease on its own nor is it the only factor that can cause the disease. This is the Probable Model of Chronic Disease Relationships

A

Neither sufficient nor necessary

81
Q

Progression of a disease process in an individual over time, on the absence of treatment (CDC)

A

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DISEASE

82
Q

2 Phases of NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DISEASE:
Phase before man is involved. Through interaction of the agent, host, and environmental factors, agent
finally reaches man. Under this is the Susceptibility and Adaptation

A

PRE-PATHOGENESIS

83
Q

2 Phases of NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DISEASE:
includes the success invasion and establishment of the agent in the host. From incubation period to production of detectable evidence of the disease
process (Clinical Horizon), until it is interrupted by treatment. Under this is the Sub-Clinical, Clinical
Stage, and the Outcome

A

PATHOGENESIS

84
Q

Pre-exposure period in the natural history of disease (pre-pathogenesis), in which the individual in the population is vulnerable or at risk to acquire the infection and/or amenable to get exposed to and be harmed by a health determinant.

A 
SUSCEPTIBILITY STAGE
During this stage, the individual in the
population does not have the disease nor
the infection. It is the risk factors that are
present.
The susceptibility stage ends with the
effective exposure.
85
Q

The etiological factors (e.g. infectious agent, risk behaviors, environmental toxins) are present in the body and are causing pathological changes, but
there are not yet any discernible signs or symptoms

A 
STAGE OF PRESYMPTOMATIC DISEASE
(SUBCLINICAL STAGE)
There is no manifest of disease but pathogenic changes have started to occur. The time required for the agent to establish itself, multiply and produce
toxins.
Incubation and Latency: Asymptomatic
86
Q

Refers to the period of time at the onset of signs or symptoms of the disease. Sufficient end-organ changes have occurred so that there are recognizable signs or symptoms of disease

A

STAGE OF CLINICAL DISEASE
Morphologic subdivision or on functional or therapeutic
considerations

87
Q

Before the risk factors.
Prevent development of risk factors.
Target: The general population, mostly the young ones

A

PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION
The phase of disease of this one is the underlying social and environmental conditions leading to causation. The aim of this level is to establish and maintain conditions that minimize hazards to health

88
Q 
Pre-pathogenesis
Prevent disease:
- Reduction of risk factors
- Immunization
- Removal of harmful agents
A

PRIMARY PREVENTION
Target: Susceptible groups in the population.
The phase of disease of this is the specific causal factors.
The aim of this is to reduce the incidence of disease

89
Q 
Subclinical
Early detection
Prompt treatment
Cure disease at the earliest stage
Target: Patients that are at the earliest
stage of disease
A

SECONDARY PREVENTION
The phase of disease of this is the earliest stage of disease. The aim of this is to reduce the prevalence of the disease by shortening its duration

90
Q 
Complete treatment
Limit disability
Rehabilitation
Target: People with disease at the late
stage
A

TERTIARY PREVENTION
The phase of disease of this is the late stage of disease (treatment and rehabilitation stage)
The aim of this is to reduce the number or impact on the complication

91
Q

Method of grouping of diseases based on their specific features.
Ensures universal criteria for
diagnosing diseases

A

CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES

Usually dependent on current level of knowledge about the disease

92
Q

Diagnostic classification standard for all clinical and research purposes
Used by more than 100 countries worldwide

A

INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
DISEASES (ICD)
Assign codes for diseases, disorders, injuries, and other related health conditions.

BIOEPI (13 decks)

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