Intro to Clinical Sciences - Patholgy Flashcards

1
Q

Name the cells involved in inflammation?

A

neutrophil polymorphs, macrophages, lymphocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts.

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2
Q

What is a neutrophil polymorph?

A

They are short lived cells which are first on the scene of acute inflammation. they are cytoplasmic granules full of enzymes which kill bacteria. they usually die at the scene of inflammation. they also release chemicals which attract other inflammatory cells such as macrophages.

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3
Q

what is resolution and repair?

A

resolution = initiating factor removed. the tissue is undamaged or it is able to regenerate.

repair = initiating factor is still present. the tissue is damaged and unable to regenerate.

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4
Q

Name a cell that regenerates well but if too much damage occurs what will happen and explain what this is.

A

hepatocytes regenerate well. however, when damage is continuous it leads to fibrosis which will eventually become cirrhosis.

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5
Q

Name three different types of skin wounds and explain how they heal.

A

abrasion

skin wound by first intention

skin wound by second intention.

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6
Q

name two cells types which do not regenerate.

A

myocardial cells, neurones.

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7
Q

name three potential causes of thrombosis.

A

change in vessel wall, change in blood flow, change in blood constitutes.

virchow triad.

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8
Q

if there is damage to an endothelial wall, how will a thrombus form.

A

if there is any damage to the endothelial wall, collagen will be exposed. platelets then stick to the walls of the vessel. this results in platelet aggregation and the coaglutination cascade. the fibrin mesh is also produced resulting in thrombus which blocks a vessel.

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9
Q

drug to prevent thrombosis?

A

low dose aspirin.

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10
Q

what is an embolus?

A

it is a mass of material that can block a vessel such as thrombus which breaks off and causes a blockage .

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11
Q

what is ischaemia and infarction.

A

ischaemia = reduction in blood flow.

infarction = a reduction in blood flow leading to a cell death. especially common is organs with a single artery supply. organs such as lung, liver and brain are less dangerous as they have double artery supply.

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12
Q

what is atherosclerosis? what system does it occur In?what is plaque made up of? what are the risk factors for developing the condition?

A

atherosclerosis is plaque that can build up and block vessels. it does not occur in low pressure systems. plaque is made up of lipid (cholesterol), fibrous tissue, lymphocytes.

the risk factors for developing this condittion is cigarettes smoking, hypertension, poorly controlled diabetes, hyperlipidaemia.

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13
Q

explain endothelial damage theory and how certain risk factors cause it.

A

free radicals in nicotine/carbon monoxide cause direct damage.
diabetes causes superoxide anions which cause damage.
hyperlipidaemia does direct damage.

the damage to the endothelial cells causes the exposure of collagen. platelets then stick to this collage leading to platelet aggregation and the coaglutination cascade which causes a thrombus to form.

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14
Q

treatment for atherosclerosis?

A

low dose aspirin

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15
Q

what is apoptosis? name the cause of it. what protein detects abnormality and what protein carries out apoptosis? what condition happens as a result of apoptosis?

A

apoptosis = programmed cell death.
commonly as a result of DNA damage.
one protein that checks for cell damage is p53. enzyme that carries out apoptosis is capases. lack of apoptosis results in cancer. Too much apoptosis happens in conditions such as HIV.

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16
Q

what is necrosis?

A

traumatic cell death.

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17
Q

name and explain three different types of spinal bifida.

A

spinal bifida occulta - small gap in the spine but no opening. spinal cord and nerves are normal. often hidden and doesn’t cause any abnormalities.

meningocele - sac of fluid comes through an opening in the babies back. little or no nerve damage. can causes minor disability.

myelomeningocele - sac of fluid comes through opening in the babies back but it contains part of spinal cord and nerves. causes moderate to severe disability.

18
Q

what is hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, metaplasia and dysplasia

A

hypertrophy = increase in the size of tissue cause by an increase in size of constituent cells. example: body building.

hyperplasia = increase in the size of a tissue caused by an increase in number of constituent cells. requires tissue that can regenerate. example: enlarged prostate.

atrophy = decrease in the size of a tissue caused by a decrease in number of constituent cells or decrease in there size.

metaplasia = change in differential of cell from one fully differentiated type to a different fully differentiated type. example: bronchi of smokers - ciliated columnar epitehlium dies and differentiates into squamous epithelium as it is stronger.

dysplasia = imprecise term for the morphological change seen in cells in the progression to becoming cancerous. dysplasia can also refer to a developmental abnormality. example: focal cortical dysplasia.

19
Q

why do telomeres effect cell division?

A

telomeres are at the end of chromosomes and limit the amount of divisions as the telomeres fit shorter after every division. telomere length in paternal.

20
Q

what is hayflciks limit?

A

the number of times a cell can divide

21
Q

what causes dermal elastasis and cataracts?

A

UV-B light causes cross linkage between collagen protein in both skin and eyes. these proteins aren’t replaced.

22
Q

what is osteoporosis, sarcopenia, deafness and what causes them

A

osteoporosis = loss of bone matrix. caused by increcrse bone resorption and decreased bone formation due to a lack of oestrogen.

sarcopenia = loss of muscle. caused by a decrease in growth hormone, decreased testosterone, increased catabolic cytokines.

deafness = born with a certain number of hair cells within the chicles. damage to these will cause deafness.

23
Q

what is a basal cell carcinoma?

A

it is a type of skin cancer which never spreads to other parts of the body so complete local excision is the cure.

24
Q

where do carcinomas commonly spread?

A

they commonly spread to lymph nodes that drain the site of the carcinoma. they can also spread through blood to bone - common cancers that cause this is breast, prostate, lung, thyroid and kidney cancer.

25
Q

what is adjuvant therapy

A

therapy given after surgical excision.

26
Q

what is carcinogenesis?

A

the transformation of normal cells to neoplastic cells through permanent genetic alterations or mutation.

27
Q

what is the difference between carcinogenic and oncogenic.

A
carcinogenic = cancer causing. 
oncogenic = tumour causing.
28
Q

how much of cancer risk is environmental.

A

85%

29
Q

is there any structural similarities between chemical carcinogens? how do chemical carcinogens become active.

A

no there is no structural similarities.
some chemical chemical carcinogens act directly but most require metabolic conversions from pro-carcinogens to ultimate-carcinogens.

30
Q

Here are some chemaical carcinogens. what cancers do they cause and are there any comments about them?

polyclyclic aromatic hydrocarbonds

aromatic amines

nitrosamines

alkylating agents.

A
31
Q

where does alcohol casue a cancer risk. why does alcohol cause cancer.

A

alcohol causes cancer in oropharnyx, larynx, oesophagus, liver, breat and colorectal.

alcohol caues a cancer risk as it makes it easier for cells in oropharyc to absorb other carcinogens. it increases oestrogen levels. Its metabolite is also acetaldehyde which is a mutagen (causes genetic mutation).

32
Q

Here are some viral carcinogens (DNA), what cancers do they cause.

  1. epstein-bar virus
  2. human papillomavirus
  3. hepatitis B virus
  4. human herpes virus 8
A
  1. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, burkitt lymphoma, hodgkin disease, B and T cell lymphomas, leiomyosarcoma
  2. squamous cell carcinoma
  3. heptocellular carcinoma
  4. kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma.
33
Q

Here are some viral carcinogens (RNA), what cancers do they cause?

  1. human T lymphotrophic virus 1
  2. hepatitis C virus
A
  1. adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma
  2. hepatocellular carcinoma, non-hodgkin lymphoma, cholangiocarcinoma, pancreatic cancer
34
Q

here are some hormones. what type of cancer do they cause:

  1. increased oestrogen
  2. anabolic steroids
A
  1. mammary/endometrial cancer
  2. hepatocellular carcinoma.
35
Q

what is a mycotoxin?

what type of cancer does the mycotoxin aflatoxin b1 cause?

A

A mycotoxin is any toxic substance produced by a fungus.

it causes heptocellular carcinoma.

36
Q

what types of cancer do these parasites cause?

  1. chlononchis sinensis
  2. smistosoma
A
37
Q

define neoplasm

what is the strucutre of a neoplasm

A

A lesion resilting from the autoomus or relatively autonbouse abnormal growth of cells which persist after the irritating stimulus has been removed. its also a new growth.

there are two parts to a neoplasm the neoplastic cells and the stroma. the neoplastic cells are derived from nucleated cells, their growth is similar to parent cell and synthetic activity is related to parent cell. the stroma is a connective tissue framework that provides mechanical support and nutrition.

38
Q

explain what these neoplasms are:

  1. papilloma
  2. adernoma
  3. caarinoma
  4. adernocarcinoma
  5. rhabdomyoma
  6. leiomyoma
  7. sarcoma
  8. anaplastic
A
  1. papilloma - benign tumour of non-glandular, non-secretory epithelium
  2. adernoma - benign tumour of glandular or secretory epithelium
  3. caarinoma - malignat tumour of epithelial cells
  4. adernocarcinoma - carcinoma of glandular epithelium
  5. rhabdomyoma - striated muscel
  6. leiomyoma - smooth muscle
  7. sarcoma - malignat tumour of connective tisseue
  8. anaplastic - cell type of origin is unknown.
39
Q
  1. Name some “omas” that are not neoplams.
  2. name some malignat tumours that are neither carcinomas or sarcomas.
A
  1. granuloma mycetoma, tuberculoma.
  2. melanoma, mesotjelioma, lymphoma.

also remember that some cancers are named after people.

40
Q

what is a cancer called that is kept within a basement membrane ?

A

cancer in situ

41
Q

what is the process of metastasis?

what are the routes of metastasis ?

how do tumours evade the immune defence when in transport ?

A
  1. carcinoma develops
  2. invasion of basement membrane (enhanced protease activity, enhanced cell motility)
  3. angiogenesive, intravasion and transport (migration though ECM, invasion into blood vesssel, survival in circulation/immune evasion).
  4. invasion into secondary tissue, new vascular formed

many go through the pulmonary arteries and get stuck in the lungs. liver also filters blood from the colon, stomach, pancease due to the portal venous system so many go there.

they evade immune defence by aggregation with platelets, shedding of surface antigens, adhesion to other tumour cells.

42
Q

what are common cancer types that spread to bone and how do they spread to bone?

A

breast, prostate, lung, thyroid and kidney cancer

they spread from the blood into bone