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SGU pathology > intro & cellular damage > Flashcards

intro & cellular damage Flashcards

quiz 1

1
Q

what is the quest for complete and thorough understanding of a disease process?

A

pathology

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2
Q

what is the observables tissue change associated with a disease ?

A

lesion

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3
Q

what is the mechanism of how a disease develops from its initiation to its morphologic manifestation?

A

pathogenesis

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4
Q

what is the process by which lesion lead to clinical signs?

A

pathophysiology

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5
Q

what are the set of symptoms or clinical signs, characteristics of medical conditions & exhibited by patient?

A

symptomatology

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6
Q

What does lesion have to correlate with to be able to understand pathogenesis?

A

symptomatology

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7
Q

what is the expected out come of conditions ?

A

prognosis

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8
Q

what is the additional diagnostic tests that are performed to reach definitive diagnosis or etiologic diagnosis?

A

ancillary testing

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9
Q

what is a lesion that is a characteristic of specific disease beyond any doubt?

A

pathognomonic lesion

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10
Q

what is based on case history ,clinical signs & physical exam findings?

A

clinical diagnosis

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11
Q

what is a list of diseases that could account for the clinical findings &/or lesions of a case ?

A

differential diagnosis

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12
Q

what is based on changes observed in biochemistry, hematology & cytology?

A

clinical pathologic diagnosis

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13
Q

what is based on predominant lesion or pattern of lesions; maybe macroscopic or microscopic ?

A

Morphologic diagnosis (lesion diagnosis)

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14
Q

what is based on the conclusive evidence that confirms the cause of a diseases; usually pertaining to infectious agents & often requires ancillary testing?

A

Etiologic diagnosis

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15
Q

what is based on conclusive evidence from clinical data & observed lesion?

A

Definitive diagnosis

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16
Q

what are the 5 components of Morphologic diagnosis ?

A
  1. severity 2. duration 3. distribution 4. location 5. nature of lesion
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17
Q

what are the different variation for severity in morphologic diagnosis ?

A
  1. Mild 2. moderate 3. severe
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18
Q

what are the different variation for duration in morphologic diagnosis?

A
  1. Peracute 2. acute 3. subacute 4. Chronic
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19
Q

what are the different variation for nature of lesion in Morphologic diagnosis?

A
  1. Inflammatory 2. degenerative 3. Neoplastic
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20
Q

what are the different variation of distribution in Morphologic diagnosis?

A
  1. focal 2. multifocal 3. coalescing 4. diffuse
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21
Q

what are the causes for cellular injury ?

A
  1. Hypoxia 2. oxidative stress( free radial) 3. physical agents
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22
Q

What are the 2 events that can result in Hypoxia ?

A
  1. reduce blood flow 2. Reduced oxygen saturation of the blood
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23
Q

What are some examples of diseases that will cause reduced blood flow?

A
  1. heart disease 2. shunting 3. hypovolemia 4. congestion 5. vessel obstruction 6. infaction 7. ischemia
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24
Q

what are some examples of diseases that will cause reduced oxygen saturation of blood?

A
  1. respiratory disease 2. anemia 3. methoglobinemia 4. erythrocyte abnormalities
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25
Q

What are cells are the most susceptible to hypoxic injury?

A

cells that have high metabolic demand

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26
Q

What is the first event in the sequence of events for hypoxia causing cell injury ?

A

decrease oxidative phosphorylation

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27
Q

What events follows the decrease oxidative phosphorylation in the sequence of events for hypoxia?

A

decrease ATP

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28
Q

What are the 3 effects as a result of decrease ATP?

A
  1. decrease Na/K pump 2. increase Glycolysis 3. detachments ribosomes
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29
Q

What will happen to Ca/H20/Na when there is a decrease in Na/K pump?

A

Influx of : 1. Ca 2. H20 3. Na

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30
Q

What will happen to K when there is a decrease in Na/K pump?

A

efflux

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31
Q

what will be the results for decrease Na/K pump?

A

1.cell swelling 2. loss of microbial 3. blebs 4. ER swelling 5. myelin figure

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32
Q

What is consequences of an increase in glycolysis ?

A
  1. decrease of pH 2. decrease glycogen
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33
Q

What is the end result of increase glycolysis ?

A

clumping of Nuclear chromatin

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34
Q

what are the other effects of decrease ATP due to hypoxia in the tissue?

A
  1. detachment of ribosomes 2. decrease protein synthesis 3. lipid deposition
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35
Q

what type of cellular damage can free radical cause ?

A

oxidative stress

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36
Q

what are the types of free radials that will cause oxidative stress?

A
  1. Superoxide anion (O2) 2. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 3. hydroxyl radical (OH)
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37
Q

what are the sources of free radical to cause oxidative stress?

A
  1. endogenous 2. exogenous
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38
Q

what are the endogenous sources of free radicals?

A
  1. metabolic enzymes reactions 2. metal cations 3. inflammatory disease 4. neoplastic disease
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39
Q

what are the exogenous sources of free radicals?

A
  1. chemicals 2. drugs 3. toxins 4. radiation 5. tissue trauma
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40
Q

what are the consequences of oxidative stress causing cellular injury?

A
  1. damage to lipids, proteins & DNA 2. chronic tissue damage & chronic disease 3. Organs failure
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41
Q

what is the defense mechanism for oxidative stress to prevent cellular damage/injury?

A

Antioxidants

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42
Q

what are the antioxidants used as defense mechanism for oxidative stress?

A
  1. superoxide dismutase 2. Catalase 3. Glutathione peroxidase 4. Vitamin E 5. Selenium
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43
Q

What antioxidant will catalyzes the superoxide radical into oxygen or hydrogen peroxide?

A

Superoxide dismutase (SOD)

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44
Q

what antioxidant will catalyzes the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water & oxygen?

A

Catalase

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45
Q

what antioxidant will catalyzes the conversion of lipid hydroperoxide to their corresponding alcohols & reduce free hydrogen peroxides to water?

A

Glutathione peroxidase

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46
Q

what antioxidant helps to neutralize the effects of free radicals?

A

Vitamin E

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47
Q

what antioxidant is an essential cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, ascorbate ,ceruloplasmin , transferrin & cysteine all help to protect membrane from oxidant injury?

A

Selenium

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48
Q

What can prevent chronic oxidative injury?

A

optimize cellular function

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49
Q

How can cellular function be optimize cellular function>

A
  1. reduce inflammation 2. reduce oxidative stress 3. balance pH 4. genetic factors 5. hydration, diet, exercise, & lifestyle choices
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50
Q

What are examples of acute oxidative injury?

A

Nutritional myopathy

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51
Q

what is white muscle disease that causes acute oxidative injury?

A

nutritional myopathy -nutritional deficiency of vitamin E &/or selenium

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52
Q

what are examples of physical agents that can cause cellular damage ?

A
  1. trauma 2. extreme cold 3. extreme heat 4. electricity 5. ionizing radiation 6. radiation
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53
Q

what physical agent will cause direct cell death & loss of blood supply ?

A

trauma

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54
Q

what physical agent causes impairs blood flow & cause ice formation?

A

extreme cold

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55
Q

what physical agent causes denature proteins & damages membrane ?

A

extreme heat

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56
Q

what physical agent generates extreme heat & alters conduction?

A

electricity

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57
Q

what physical agent causes DNA damage resulting in apoptosis , mutations, & sometimes neoplasia?

A

radiation

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58
Q

what are types of infectious agent that can cause cell injury ?

A
  1. viruses 2. bacteria 3. fungi 4. parasite 5. prions
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59
Q

what are types of immunologic dysfunction that cause cellular injury?

A
  1. immunopathology 2. immune mediate diseases 3. autoimmune diseases
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60
Q

what are types of genetic derangement that can cause cellular injury?

A
  1. cellular mutation 2. genetic predisposition 3. neoplastic diseases
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61
Q

what are the consequence of cell membrane injury?

A
  1. loss of Na ion pump 2. membrane permeability 3. injury to membranes in RER
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62
Q

what is result of cell membrane permeability due to injury?

A
  1. abnormal Ca influx 2. mitochondria damage 3. decrease ATP production
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63
Q

what is the result of loss Na ion pump due to cell membrane injury?

A

cell swelling

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64
Q

what is the results of injury to membrane in RER ?

A
  1. dislocation of ribosomes 2. inhibition of protein synthesis
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65
Q

what is the function of mitochondria?

A
  1. Fatty acid oxidation generates Acetyl-CoA, NADH,FADh2 2. Krebs cycle involves oxidation of Acetyl-CoA to generate CO2 & ATP 3. oxidative phosphorylation use ETC to generate energy for synthesis of ATP
66
Q

what will be a result of a damage Mitochondria?

A
  1. decrease ATP→ apoptosis 2. leakage of Ca & proapoptoctic protein → apoptosis
67
Q

what is the function of the nucleus ?

A

storage/maintenance /transmission of genetic information

68
Q

what will be result of damage to nucleus?

A
  1. damage to nuclear envelope due to oxidative stress 2. DNA damage
69
Q

what are common ways for DNA damage to occur?

A
  1. oxidative stress 2. chemical, drugs, radiation 3. random mutation & replication 4. DNA repair malfunction
70
Q

what happens when there is stress to the cell ?

A
71
Q

what happens to normal cell is there is injurious stimulus or it is unable to adapt ?

A

cell injury

72
Q

What type of cell injury can be classified as mild or transiet?

A

reversible injury

73
Q

what type of cell injury can be classified as severe or progressive?

A

irreversible injury

74
Q

What are the consequences of irreversible cell injury ?

A
  1. necrosis
  2. apoptosis
  3. postmortem autolysis
75
Q

How is hydrodynamic system vulnerable?

A
  1. Na/K pump becomes dysfunctional
  2. cell membrane damage
76
Q

What will be the hydrodynamic outcome when system is disrupted?

A

cell swelling → apotosis

77
Q

what is hydropic degeneration?

A

cell swelling

78
Q

when can hydropic degeneration occur?

A
  1. hypoxia
  2. cell membrnae injury
79
Q

Can you see morphologic changes in tissue when there is cell swelling or can you only see it with a microscope?

A

you can see with the naked eye when the organ becomes enlarge but usually seen with microscope

80
Q

What is the morphology of severe cell swelling that occurs in epidermis ?

A

ballooning degeneration

81
Q

what does ballooning degeneration usually indication of ?

A

viral infection

82
Q

what is the destruction of cell by its own enzymes ?

A

autolysis

83
Q

what is the cosequence of inadequate ATP production leading to cytosolic influx of Ca to cause the cell to swell beyond the piont of no return?

A

Oncontic necrosis

84
Q

What are the type of morphology for necrosis ?

A
  1. Pyknosis
  2. Karyolysis
  3. karonosis
85
Q

what type of morhology of necrosis is the destruction of nucleus?

A

karyolysis

86
Q

what morphology of necrosis will have condensation of nucleus ?

A

Pyknosis

87
Q

What are the types of necrosis ?

A
  1. coagulation necrosis
  2. liquefactive necrosis
  3. gangrenous necrosis
88
Q

what type of necrosis is acute & has well defined boundary of white surrounded by red?

A

coagulation necrosis

89
Q

what type of injuiry will result in coagulation necrosis?

A

ischemic necrosis

90
Q

what type of necrosis is chronic & caused by chronic inflammation?

A

caseation necrosis

91
Q

what is the morphologic characteristics of caseation necrosis ?

A

chrumble cheese like substance

92
Q

What type of necrosis is acute/subacute injury or inflammation to the brain or spinal cord?

A

liquefactive necrosis - Encephalomalacia

93
Q

what morphological characteristics are seen in liquefactive necrosis-encephalomalacia ?

A

liquified or dissappearing of tissue

94
Q

what type of necrosis is acute & can be seen with abscesses ?

A

Liquefactuve necrosis - suppurative inflammation

95
Q

what type of morphological characteristic are seen in liquefactive necrosis - suppurative inflammation?

A
  1. pus
  2. accumulation of degenerative Neurophils
96
Q

what type of necrosis has no bacterial involvement & seen as coagulation necrosis of an extremity followed by mummification?

A

Gangrenous necrosis - dry gangrene

97
Q

what type of injury can cause dry gangrenous -necrosis?

A
  1. vascular injury at periphery
  2. frost bite
98
Q

what are the morphological features in dry gangerous necrosis?

A
  1. dead tissue shrinks
  2. mummification
99
Q

Is dry gangrenous necrosis acute or chronic?

A

Both

  1. vascular injury is chronic
  2. mummification is acute
100
Q

What necrosis is a combination of coagulation & liquefactive necrosis with bacterial putrefaction seen on the extremity or segment of intestine?

A

gangrenous necrosis - moist gangrene

101
Q

what is the difference btwn gangrenous necrosis- moist gangrene & gangrenous necrosis - dry ?

A

gangrenous necrosis - moist gangrene has bacteria

102
Q

what necrosis has proliferation of anaerobic bacteria with gas production that is seen as hemorrhagic exudate with bubbles?

A

gangrenous necrosis - gas gangrene

103
Q

what type of necrosis has complete loss of epithelium with deeper injury & longer to heal?

A

ulceration

104
Q

what type of necrosis has partial loss of epithelium & superficial injury that is quicker to heal?

A

Erosion

105
Q

What are the types of necrosis of fat?

A
  1. Enzymatic necrosis of fat
  2. traumatic necrosis of fat
  3. abdominal fat necrosis of cattle
106
Q

what is the sequence of necrosis?

A
  1. inflammation
  2. healing
  3. +/- sequestration
107
Q

what are the type of cells will remove the dead tissue ?

A
  1. Neutrophil
  2. Macrophages
108
Q

What steps are in healing process for necrosis sequence?

A
  1. regeneration
  2. fibrosis
109
Q

What is the result is no healing has taken placed from necrosis of the tissue?

A

sequestration

110
Q

what is necrotic material resistant to degradation?

A

sequestration

111
Q

What is self -induced death of individual cells by cellular shrinkage rather than swelling?

A

Apoptosis

112
Q

Would you exprect to see inflammation associated w/ apoptosis ?

A

No

113
Q

What is the morphology of apotosis ?

A
  1. condesation of chromatin
  2. condnsation of cytoplasm
  3. fragmentation of cell into apoptotic bodies
114
Q

What is te fragmentation of cell into small membrane bound segements that are requires continued maintenance of cell membrane?

A

apoptotic bodies

115
Q

what does apoptotic bodies prevent?

A

inflammation

116
Q

What is tissue homeostasis & growth regulation of fetal development & remodeling ?

A

embryogenesis

117
Q

what is immunolgy?

A
  1. immune tolerance
  2. regulation of inflammatory response to minimize associated tissue damage
118
Q

What is the types of pathological apoptosis ?

A
  1. hypoxia w/drawal of growth factors or hormones
  2. cell-mediated immune responses
  3. chemicals & cytotoxic drugs
119
Q

What type of pathological apoptosis has death receptors ligands & cytotoxic leukocytes that cytotoxic T lymphocytes target the cell for elmination by induction of apotosis?

A

cell-mediated immune response

120
Q

The type of cells will cell-medicated immune response target ?

A
  1. tumor cells
  2. virus infected cells
121
Q

what is the mechanisms of apoptosis ?

A
  1. intiation phase
  2. active phase
122
Q

what mechanism of apotosis has intrinisc pathway & extrinisic pathway?

A

initation phase

123
Q

what is the intrinsic pathway of initiation phase mechanism of apoptosis ?

A

mitochondrial

124
Q

what is the extrinsic pathway of the initation phase of mechanims of apoptosis?

A

death receptor initiated

125
Q

what mechanism of apoptosis has a caspase enzyme cascade?

A

activation phase

126
Q

what is sequence of chronic stress & sublethal injury that will results in chronic injury & cellular adaption?

A
  1. Autophagocytosis
  2. changes in cell size , number or appearane
  3. pathological calcification
  4. intracellular accumulation
  5. extracellular accumulation
  6. pigment accumulation
127
Q

what is the process opf removing/recycling damaged organelles & proteins ?

A

autophagy

128
Q

what is the process of autphagy?

A

damaged organelles enveloped by cell membranes to form autophagosomes which are expelled by exocytosis or degraded by lysosomal fusion

129
Q

What are the residual bodies of cell that persist filled with?

A

ceroid lipofuscin

130
Q

What are the types of changes in cell size, number or appearance ?

A
  1. Atrophy
  2. hypertrophy
  3. hyperplasia
  4. metaplasia
  5. dysplasia
  6. anaplasia
131
Q

what is the decrease in size or amount of cell , tissue ,or organ after normal growth has been reach?

A

Atrophy

132
Q

what are common type of atrophy?

A
  1. disues atrophy
  2. denervation atrophy
  3. pressure atrophy
  4. thymic involution
  5. senility
  6. nutrient deficiency
  7. reduced blood supply
  8. loss of endocrine stimulation
133
Q

what is an increase in tissue mass due to an increase in dividual cell size ?

A

hypertrophy

134
Q

what are the 2 types of hypertrophy?

A
  1. functional hypertrophy
  2. hormonal hypertrophy
135
Q

what type of hypertrophy is seen in :

  1. cardiac & skeletal muscle due to increase function demands
  2. compensatory hypertrophy of one kidney after nephrectomy ?
A

functional hypertrophy

136
Q

what type of hypertrophy can be seen in estrogen influence leads to myometrial hypertrophy in the uterus?

A

hormonal hypertrophy

137
Q

what is an increase in tissue mass due to increase in number of cells ,commonly seen in labile cell( epidermis , BM, Enterocytes)?

A

hyperplasia

138
Q

what are the types of hyperplasia?

A
  1. physiologic hyerplasia
  2. pathologic hyperplasia
  3. idiopathic
139
Q

what are the types of physiologic hyperplasia?

A
  1. hormonal (mammary gland hyperplasia due to pregnancy)
  2. compensatory (regeneration after partial organ loss)
140
Q

what are the types of pathologic hyperplasia?

A
  1. chronic irritation (epidermal hyperplasia)
  2. excessive hormone (cystic endometrial hyperplasia w/ excessive P)
141
Q

what is a type of idiopathic hyerplasia?

A

nodular hyperplasia of spleen , liver & pancreas of old dogs

142
Q

what is the adaptive change from one adult cell type to another adult cell type usually due to chronic stimulus?

A

Metaplasia

143
Q

what are examples of metaplasia?

A
  1. chronic respiratory irritation leads to squamous metaplasia
  2. vit A deficiency leads to squamous metaplasia of transitional or columnar epithelium
  3. Osseous metaplasia may occur w/ soft chronic tissue injury
  4. Myeloid metaplasia may occur in the spleen w/ bone marrow insufficiency
144
Q

what are the types of pathologic calcification ?

A
  1. dystrophic
  2. metastic
145
Q

what pathologic calcification has calcium deposition occuring in local sites of injury & necrosis?

A

dytrophic

146
Q

what are examples of dystrophic calcification ?

A
  1. necrotic myocardium or skeletal muscle ( white muscle disease )
  2. granulomas & dead embedded parasites
  3. calcinosis cutis
  4. calcinosis circumscripta
147
Q

what is an increase of glucocorticoid causes collagen degeneration followed by calcification ?

A

calcinosis cutis

148
Q

what is reptitive trauma causes tissue injury followed by calcification ?

A

calcinosis circumscripta

149
Q

what calcification has calcium deposition occuring in normal tissue & secondary to hypercalcemia?

A

metastatic

150
Q

what are the 6 causes for hypercalcemia?

A
  1. renal failure leading to secondary renal hyperparathyroidism
  2. primary hyperparathyroidism
  3. paraneoplastic
  4. Vit D toxicosis
  5. destructive bone tumor
  6. severe granulomatous disease
151
Q

what is paraneoplastic metastic ?

A

lymphoma & anal sac adenocarcinoma produce PTH-related protein

152
Q

What are causers for vit. D toxicosis that results in metastic calcification?

A
  1. calcinogenic plants
  2. rodenticide toxicosis
153
Q

What will be the serum of Ca concentration in dystrophic calcification?

A

normal

154
Q

what will be the serum Ca concentration in metastatic calcification?

A

elevated = hypercalcemia

155
Q

what are the intracellular accumulation for chronic injury & cellular adaption ?

A
  1. Lipids
  2. Glycogen
  3. Protein
  4. other intracellular inclusion
156
Q

What are diseases that will cause an intracellular accumulation of lipids?

A
  1. hepatic lipidosis
  2. fatty infiltration
157
Q

what are the other intracellular inclusion that will results in intracellular accumulation?

A
  1. autophagic vaculoes
  2. crystalline proteins
  3. viral inclusion bodies
  4. lead inclusion bodies
158
Q

what are the extraceullar accumulation that will cause chronic injury & cellular adaption?

A
  1. hyaline change
  2. fibrinoid change
  3. Gout
  4. Pseudogout
  5. Cholesterol
  6. Pigments
159
Q

How should you approac interpreting lesions?

A
  1. inflammatory
  2. Neoplastic
  3. degenerative
160
Q

what can cause an inflammatory lesion?

A
  1. infectious
  2. immune mediated
161
Q

What are the causes for a neoplastic lesion?

A
  1. Benign
  2. Malignant
162
Q

What are the causes for degenerative lesion?

A
  1. self -limiting
  2. progressive

SGU pathology (2 decks)

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