intro & cellular damage Flashcards
quiz 1
1
Q
what is the quest for complete and thorough understanding of a disease process?
A
pathology
2
Q
what is the observables tissue change associated with a disease ?
A
lesion
3
Q
what is the mechanism of how a disease develops from its initiation to its morphologic manifestation?
A
pathogenesis
4
Q
what is the process by which lesion lead to clinical signs?
A
pathophysiology
5
Q
what are the set of symptoms or clinical signs, characteristics of medical conditions & exhibited by patient?
A
symptomatology
6
Q
What does lesion have to correlate with to be able to understand pathogenesis?
A
symptomatology
7
Q
what is the expected out come of conditions ?
A
prognosis
8
Q
what is the additional diagnostic tests that are performed to reach definitive diagnosis or etiologic diagnosis?
A
ancillary testing
9
Q
what is a lesion that is a characteristic of specific disease beyond any doubt?
A
pathognomonic lesion
10
Q
what is based on case history ,clinical signs & physical exam findings?
A
clinical diagnosis
11
Q
what is a list of diseases that could account for the clinical findings &/or lesions of a case ?
A
differential diagnosis
12
Q
what is based on changes observed in biochemistry, hematology & cytology?
A
clinical pathologic diagnosis
13
Q
what is based on predominant lesion or pattern of lesions; maybe macroscopic or microscopic ?
A
Morphologic diagnosis (lesion diagnosis)
14
Q
what is based on the conclusive evidence that confirms the cause of a diseases; usually pertaining to infectious agents & often requires ancillary testing?
A
Etiologic diagnosis
15
Q
what is based on conclusive evidence from clinical data & observed lesion?
A
Definitive diagnosis
16
Q
what are the 5 components of Morphologic diagnosis ?
A
- severity 2. duration 3. distribution 4. location 5. nature of lesion
17
Q
what are the different variation for severity in morphologic diagnosis ?
A
- Mild 2. moderate 3. severe
18
Q
what are the different variation for duration in morphologic diagnosis?
A
- Peracute 2. acute 3. subacute 4. Chronic
19
Q
what are the different variation for nature of lesion in Morphologic diagnosis?
A
- Inflammatory 2. degenerative 3. Neoplastic
20
Q
what are the different variation of distribution in Morphologic diagnosis?
A
- focal 2. multifocal 3. coalescing 4. diffuse
21
Q
what are the causes for cellular injury ?
A
- Hypoxia 2. oxidative stress( free radial) 3. physical agents
22
Q
What are the 2 events that can result in Hypoxia ?
A
- reduce blood flow 2. Reduced oxygen saturation of the blood
23
Q
What are some examples of diseases that will cause reduced blood flow?
A
- heart disease 2. shunting 3. hypovolemia 4. congestion 5. vessel obstruction 6. infaction 7. ischemia
24
Q
what are some examples of diseases that will cause reduced oxygen saturation of blood?
A
- respiratory disease 2. anemia 3. methoglobinemia 4. erythrocyte abnormalities
25
What are cells are the most susceptible to hypoxic injury?
cells that have high metabolic demand
26
What is the first event in the sequence of events for hypoxia causing cell injury ?
decrease oxidative phosphorylation
27
What events follows the decrease oxidative phosphorylation in the sequence of events for hypoxia?
decrease ATP
28
What are the 3 effects as a result of decrease ATP?
1. decrease Na/K pump 2. increase Glycolysis 3. detachments ribosomes
29
What will happen to Ca/H20/Na when there is a decrease in Na/K pump?
Influx of : 1. Ca 2. H20 3. Na
30
What will happen to K when there is a decrease in Na/K pump?
efflux
31
what will be the results for decrease Na/K pump?
1.cell swelling 2. loss of microbial 3. blebs 4. ER swelling 5. myelin figure
32
What is consequences of an increase in glycolysis ?
1. decrease of pH 2. decrease glycogen
33
What is the end result of increase glycolysis ?
clumping of Nuclear chromatin
34
what are the other effects of decrease ATP due to hypoxia in the tissue?
1. detachment of ribosomes 2. decrease protein synthesis 3. lipid deposition
35
what type of cellular damage can free radical cause ?
oxidative stress
36
what are the types of free radials that will cause oxidative stress?
1. Superoxide anion (O2) 2. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 3. hydroxyl radical (OH)
37
what are the sources of free radical to cause oxidative stress?
1. endogenous 2. exogenous
38
what are the endogenous sources of free radicals?
1. metabolic enzymes reactions 2. metal cations 3. inflammatory disease 4. neoplastic disease
39
what are the exogenous sources of free radicals?
1. chemicals 2. drugs 3. toxins 4. radiation 5. tissue trauma
40
what are the consequences of oxidative stress causing cellular injury?
1. damage to lipids, proteins & DNA 2. chronic tissue damage & chronic disease 3. Organs failure
41
what is the defense mechanism for oxidative stress to prevent cellular damage/injury?
Antioxidants
42
what are the antioxidants used as defense mechanism for oxidative stress?
1. superoxide dismutase 2. Catalase 3. Glutathione peroxidase 4. Vitamin E 5. Selenium
43
What antioxidant will catalyzes the superoxide radical into oxygen or hydrogen peroxide?
Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
44
what antioxidant will catalyzes the conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water & oxygen?
Catalase
45
what antioxidant will catalyzes the conversion of lipid hydroperoxide to their corresponding alcohols & reduce free hydrogen peroxides to water?
Glutathione peroxidase
46
what antioxidant helps to neutralize the effects of free radicals?
Vitamin E
47
what antioxidant is an essential cofactor for the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, ascorbate ,ceruloplasmin , transferrin & cysteine all help to protect membrane from oxidant injury?
Selenium
48
What can prevent chronic oxidative injury?
optimize cellular function
49
How can cellular function be optimize cellular function\>
1. reduce inflammation 2. reduce oxidative stress 3. balance pH 4. genetic factors 5. hydration, diet, exercise, & lifestyle choices
50
What are examples of acute oxidative injury?
Nutritional myopathy
51
what is white muscle disease that causes acute oxidative injury?
nutritional myopathy -nutritional deficiency of vitamin E &/or selenium
52
what are examples of physical agents that can cause cellular damage ?
1. trauma 2. extreme cold 3. extreme heat 4. electricity 5. ionizing radiation 6. radiation
53
what physical agent will cause direct cell death & loss of blood supply ?
trauma
54
what physical agent causes impairs blood flow & cause ice formation?
extreme cold
55
what physical agent causes denature proteins & damages membrane ?
extreme heat
56
what physical agent generates extreme heat & alters conduction?
electricity
57
what physical agent causes DNA damage resulting in apoptosis , mutations, & sometimes neoplasia?
radiation
58
what are types of infectious agent that can cause cell injury ?
1. viruses 2. bacteria 3. fungi 4. parasite 5. prions
59
what are types of immunologic dysfunction that cause cellular injury?
1. immunopathology 2. immune mediate diseases 3. autoimmune diseases
60
what are types of genetic derangement that can cause cellular injury?
1. cellular mutation 2. genetic predisposition 3. neoplastic diseases
61
what are the consequence of cell membrane injury?
1. loss of Na ion pump 2. membrane permeability 3. injury to membranes in RER
62
what is result of cell membrane permeability due to injury?
1. abnormal Ca influx 2. mitochondria damage 3. decrease ATP production
63
what is the result of loss Na ion pump due to cell membrane injury?
cell swelling
64
what is the results of injury to membrane in RER ?
1. dislocation of ribosomes 2. inhibition of protein synthesis
65
what is the function of mitochondria?
1. Fatty acid oxidation generates Acetyl-CoA, NADH,FADh2 2. Krebs cycle involves oxidation of Acetyl-CoA to generate CO2 & ATP 3. oxidative phosphorylation use ETC to generate energy for synthesis of ATP
66
what will be a result of a damage Mitochondria?
1. decrease ATP→ apoptosis 2. leakage of Ca & proapoptoctic protein → apoptosis
67
what is the function of the nucleus ?
storage/maintenance /transmission of genetic information
68
what will be result of damage to nucleus?
1. damage to nuclear envelope due to oxidative stress 2. DNA damage
69
what are common ways for DNA damage to occur?
1. oxidative stress 2. chemical, drugs, radiation 3. random mutation & replication 4. DNA repair malfunction
70
what happens when there is stress to the cell ?
71
what happens to normal cell is there is injurious stimulus or it is unable to adapt ?
cell injury
72
What type of cell injury can be classified as mild or transiet?
reversible injury
73
what type of cell injury can be classified as severe or progressive?
irreversible injury
74
What are the consequences of irreversible cell injury ?
1. necrosis
2. apoptosis
3. postmortem autolysis
75
How is hydrodynamic system vulnerable?
1. Na/K pump becomes dysfunctional
2. cell membrane damage
76
What will be the hydrodynamic outcome when system is disrupted?
cell swelling → apotosis
77
what is hydropic degeneration?
cell swelling
78
when can hydropic degeneration occur?
1. hypoxia
2. cell membrnae injury
79
Can you see morphologic changes in tissue when there is cell swelling or can you only see it with a microscope?
you can see with the naked eye when the organ becomes enlarge but usually seen with microscope
80
What is the morphology of severe cell swelling that occurs in epidermis ?
ballooning degeneration
81
what does ballooning degeneration usually indication of ?
viral infection
82
what is the destruction of cell by its own enzymes ?
autolysis
83
what is the cosequence of inadequate ATP production leading to cytosolic influx of Ca to cause the cell to swell beyond the piont of no return?
Oncontic necrosis
84
What are the type of morphology for necrosis ?
1. Pyknosis
2. Karyolysis
3. karonosis
85
what type of morhology of necrosis is the destruction of nucleus?
karyolysis
86
what morphology of necrosis will have condensation of nucleus ?
Pyknosis
87
What are the types of necrosis ?
1. coagulation necrosis
2. liquefactive necrosis
3. gangrenous necrosis
88
what type of necrosis is acute & has well defined boundary of white surrounded by red?
coagulation necrosis
89
what type of injuiry will result in coagulation necrosis?
ischemic necrosis
90
what type of necrosis is chronic & caused by chronic inflammation?
caseation necrosis
91
what is the morphologic characteristics of caseation necrosis ?
chrumble cheese like substance
92
What type of necrosis is acute/subacute injury or inflammation to the brain or spinal cord?
liquefactive necrosis - Encephalomalacia
93
what morphological characteristics are seen in liquefactive necrosis-encephalomalacia ?
liquified or dissappearing of tissue
94
what type of necrosis is acute & can be seen with abscesses ?
Liquefactuve necrosis - suppurative inflammation
95
what type of morphological characteristic are seen in liquefactive necrosis - suppurative inflammation?
1. pus
2. accumulation of degenerative Neurophils
96
what type of necrosis has no bacterial involvement & seen as coagulation necrosis of an extremity followed by mummification?
Gangrenous necrosis - dry gangrene
97
what type of injury can cause dry gangrenous -necrosis?
1. vascular injury at periphery
2. frost bite
98
what are the morphological features in dry gangerous necrosis?
1. dead tissue shrinks
2. mummification
99
Is dry gangrenous necrosis acute or chronic?
Both
1. vascular injury is chronic
2. mummification is acute
100
What necrosis is a combination of coagulation & liquefactive necrosis with bacterial putrefaction seen on the extremity or segment of intestine?
gangrenous necrosis - moist gangrene
101
what is the difference btwn gangrenous necrosis- moist gangrene & gangrenous necrosis - dry ?
gangrenous necrosis - moist gangrene has bacteria
102
what necrosis has proliferation of anaerobic bacteria with gas production that is seen as hemorrhagic exudate with bubbles?
gangrenous necrosis - gas gangrene
103
what type of necrosis has complete loss of epithelium with deeper injury & longer to heal?
ulceration
104
what type of necrosis has partial loss of epithelium & superficial injury that is quicker to heal?
Erosion
105
What are the types of necrosis of fat?
1. Enzymatic necrosis of fat
2. traumatic necrosis of fat
3. abdominal fat necrosis of cattle
106
what is the sequence of necrosis?
1. inflammation
2. healing
3. +/- sequestration
107
what are the type of cells will remove the dead tissue ?
1. Neutrophil
2. Macrophages
108
What steps are in healing process for necrosis sequence?
1. regeneration
2. fibrosis
109
What is the result is no healing has taken placed from necrosis of the tissue?
sequestration
110
what is necrotic material resistant to degradation?
sequestration
111
What is self -induced death of individual cells by cellular shrinkage rather than swelling?
Apoptosis
112
Would you exprect to see inflammation associated w/ apoptosis ?
No
113
What is the morphology of apotosis ?
1. condesation of chromatin
2. condnsation of cytoplasm
3. fragmentation of cell into apoptotic bodies
114
What is te fragmentation of cell into small membrane bound segements that are requires continued maintenance of cell membrane?
apoptotic bodies
115
what does apoptotic bodies prevent?
inflammation
116
What is tissue homeostasis & growth regulation of fetal development & remodeling ?
embryogenesis
117
what is immunolgy?
1. immune tolerance
2. regulation of inflammatory response to minimize associated tissue damage
118
What is the types of pathological apoptosis ?
1. hypoxia w/drawal of growth factors or hormones
2. cell-mediated immune responses
3. chemicals & cytotoxic drugs
119
What type of pathological apoptosis has death receptors ligands & cytotoxic leukocytes that cytotoxic T lymphocytes target the cell for elmination by induction of apotosis?
cell-mediated immune response
120
The type of cells will cell-medicated immune response target ?
1. tumor cells
2. virus infected cells
121
what is the mechanisms of apoptosis ?
1. intiation phase
2. active phase
122
what mechanism of apotosis has intrinisc pathway & extrinisic pathway?
initation phase
123
what is the intrinsic pathway of initiation phase mechanism of apoptosis ?
mitochondrial
124
what is the extrinsic pathway of the initation phase of mechanims of apoptosis?
death receptor initiated
125
what mechanism of apoptosis has a caspase enzyme cascade?
activation phase
126
what is sequence of chronic stress & sublethal injury that will results in chronic injury & cellular adaption?
1. Autophagocytosis
2. changes in cell size , number or appearane
3. pathological calcification
4. intracellular accumulation
5. extracellular accumulation
6. pigment accumulation
127
what is the process opf removing/recycling damaged organelles & proteins ?
autophagy
128
what is the process of autphagy?
damaged organelles enveloped by cell membranes to form autophagosomes which are expelled by exocytosis or degraded by lysosomal fusion
129
What are the residual bodies of cell that persist filled with?
ceroid lipofuscin
130
What are the types of changes in cell size, number or appearance ?
1. Atrophy
2. hypertrophy
3. hyperplasia
4. metaplasia
5. dysplasia
6. anaplasia
131
what is the decrease in size or amount of cell , tissue ,or organ after normal growth has been reach?
Atrophy
132
what are common type of atrophy?
1. disues atrophy
2. denervation atrophy
3. pressure atrophy
4. thymic involution
5. senility
6. nutrient deficiency
7. reduced blood supply
8. loss of endocrine stimulation
133
what is an increase in tissue mass due to an increase in dividual cell size ?
hypertrophy
134
what are the 2 types of hypertrophy?
1. functional hypertrophy
2. hormonal hypertrophy
135
what type of hypertrophy is seen in :
1. cardiac & skeletal muscle due to increase function demands
2. compensatory hypertrophy of one kidney after nephrectomy ?
functional hypertrophy
136
what type of hypertrophy can be seen in estrogen influence leads to myometrial hypertrophy in the uterus?
hormonal hypertrophy
137
what is an increase in tissue mass due to increase in number of cells ,commonly seen in labile cell( epidermis , BM, Enterocytes)?
hyperplasia
138
what are the types of hyperplasia?
1. physiologic hyerplasia
2. pathologic hyperplasia
3. idiopathic
139
what are the types of physiologic hyperplasia?
1. hormonal (mammary gland hyperplasia due to pregnancy)
2. compensatory (regeneration after partial organ loss)
140
what are the types of pathologic hyperplasia?
1. chronic irritation (epidermal hyperplasia)
2. excessive hormone (cystic endometrial hyperplasia w/ excessive P)
141
what is a type of idiopathic hyerplasia?
nodular hyperplasia of spleen , liver & pancreas of old dogs
142
what is the adaptive change from one adult cell type to another adult cell type usually due to chronic stimulus?
Metaplasia
143
what are examples of metaplasia?
1. chronic respiratory irritation leads to squamous metaplasia
2. vit A deficiency leads to squamous metaplasia of transitional or columnar epithelium
3. Osseous metaplasia may occur w/ soft chronic tissue injury
4. Myeloid metaplasia may occur in the spleen w/ bone marrow insufficiency
144
what are the types of pathologic calcification ?
1. dystrophic
2. metastic
145
what pathologic calcification has calcium deposition occuring in local sites of injury & necrosis?
dytrophic
146
what are examples of dystrophic calcification ?
1. necrotic myocardium or skeletal muscle ( white muscle disease )
2. granulomas & dead embedded parasites
3. calcinosis cutis
4. calcinosis circumscripta
147
what is an increase of glucocorticoid causes collagen degeneration followed by calcification ?
calcinosis cutis
148
what is reptitive trauma causes tissue injury followed by calcification ?
calcinosis circumscripta
149
what calcification has calcium deposition occuring in normal tissue & secondary to hypercalcemia?
metastatic
150
what are the 6 causes for hypercalcemia?
1. renal failure leading to secondary renal hyperparathyroidism
2. primary hyperparathyroidism
3. paraneoplastic
4. Vit D toxicosis
5. destructive bone tumor
6. severe granulomatous disease
151
what is paraneoplastic metastic ?
lymphoma & anal sac adenocarcinoma produce PTH-related protein
152
What are causers for vit. D toxicosis that results in metastic calcification?
1. calcinogenic plants
2. rodenticide toxicosis
153
What will be the serum of Ca concentration in dystrophic calcification?
normal
154
what will be the serum Ca concentration in metastatic calcification?
elevated = hypercalcemia
155
what are the intracellular accumulation for chronic injury & cellular adaption ?
1. Lipids
2. Glycogen
3. Protein
4. other intracellular inclusion
156
What are diseases that will cause an intracellular accumulation of lipids?
1. hepatic lipidosis
2. fatty infiltration
157
what are the other intracellular inclusion that will results in intracellular accumulation?
1. autophagic vaculoes
2. crystalline proteins
3. viral inclusion bodies
4. lead inclusion bodies
158
what are the extraceullar accumulation that will cause chronic injury & cellular adaption?
1. hyaline change
2. fibrinoid change
3. Gout
4. Pseudogout
5. Cholesterol
6. Pigments
159
How should you approac interpreting lesions?
1. inflammatory
2. Neoplastic
3. degenerative
160
what can cause an inflammatory lesion?
1. infectious
2. immune mediated
161
What are the causes for a neoplastic lesion?
1. Benign
2. Malignant
162
What are the causes for degenerative lesion?
1. self -limiting
2. progressive
